David P. Barrows · Public domain edition · 82 cards · 23 chapters
David P. Barrows’s A History of the Philippines presents the archipelago’s past within a colonial-era framework, tracing peoples and institutions from early settlement through Spanish rule. This deck covers his claims on historiography, ethnology, feudalism, the Crusades, and the Philippines’ place in regional and world history.
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Chapter 1 · Question
What does Barrows say about the Blair and Robertson series?
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Chapter 1 · Answer
The author notes that the promised series of reprinted works on the Philippines by Miss Blair and Mr. Robertson was not begun in time to be used in preparing this book. He states its appearance will make easy a path he found comparatively difficult and will open the way for an incomparably better History of the Philippines than has ever yet been made.
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Introduction1 cards
What does Barrows say about the Blair and Robertson series?
The author notes that the promised series of reprinted works on the Philippines by Miss Blair and Mr. Robertson was not begun in time to be used in preparing this book. He states its appearance will make easy a path he found comparatively difficult and will open the way for an incomparably better History of the Philippines than has ever yet been made.
Chapter 1
CHAPTER I.3 cards
According to the chapter, what makes a people's life 'historical'?
The author argues that history is formed only where there are credible written records of events. Without such records there is no ground for historical study, and the field belongs instead to Archeology, or Prehistoric Culture. He notes that great races may lack history because they could not write, their writings were destroyed, or they recorded nothing about the life of the people.
Chapter 2
What lesson does Japan teach the Philippines, per the author?
The author argues Japan's transformation in under fifty years came from a courageous, unfaltering search for truth and thorough study of Western knowledge. The samurai class led this effort, studying abroad and even working as servants to fund their education, while the government built schools, laboratories, and a university. The author urges Filipino youth to seek education for their people's benefit, not selfish advantage.
Chapter 2
How does the chapter describe the historian's task?
The author explains that history rests largely on written records by people who lived at the time or could learn accurately by careful inquiry. But since no writer is infallibly accurate or free from error, partiality, and untruthfulness, the historian must compare accounts, weigh all evidence, allow for prejudice, and reach a conclusion that is true. Few records make the task difficult; voluminous material may exceed a lifetime.
Chapter 2
CHAPTER II.4 cards
What does the chapter say ethnology is and how does it help statesmen?
The chapter defines ethnology as the science of races, separate from history, explaining how and where races originated and the relationships and differences between them. It states this knowledge assists statesmen dealing with their own and other peoples, and helps individuals of different races understand one another and treat each other with respect, kindness, and sympathy.
Chapter 3
What physical characteristics does the chapter give for the Negritos?
The chapter describes the Negritos as among the smallest peoples in the world, with men averaging about 145 centimeters tall and women correspondingly smaller. They have dark-brown skins, wooly or kinky hair forming thick mats, large fine brown eyes, and regular features. Despite these peculiarities the author says they are not unattractive, with little bodies often beautifully shaped.
Chapter 3
How does the chapter describe the agriculture of the mountain tribes of northern Luzon?
The author describes these mountaineers building stone-walled terraced gardens on the slopes, sometimes hundreds in one valley, rising from a canyon bottom almost to a ridge summit. The terraces are carefully irrigated by log flumes and ditches carried for miles, fertilized with village refuse, and produce two or frequently three crops a year. The author calls this the most developed and nearly scientific agriculture in the Philippines.
Chapter 3
Which peoples does the chapter identify as the civilized Malayan Filipinos and where do they live?
The chapter says later arrivals of higher culture became the ancestors of the civilized Filipino people. The Bisaya are the largest, in Panay, Negros, Leyte, Samar, Marinduque, and northern Mindanao; the Bicol are in Sorsogon and the Camarines; the Tagalog hold central Luzon including Manila; the Pampango and Pangasinan occupy the northern Luzon plain; the Ilocano the northwest coast; and the Cagayanes the Cagayan valley.
Chapter 3
CHAPTER III.4 cards
What does Barrows say the Middle Ages began and ended with?
The author states the Middle Ages spanned roughly 500 to 1300 A.D., beginning with the fall of the Roman Empire and the looting of Rome by German tribes, and ending with the rise of a new literature, a new way of viewing the world, and a passion for discovery. He also cites Gibbon's phrase, "the triumph of barbarism and religion."
Chapter 4
How did feudalism work, according to the chapter?
The author explains that the weak free man gave up his freedom and lands to a stronger lord, swearing obedience in exchange for protection, and received the lands back as a "fief," sharing its product. That lord in turn became a vassal to a greater overlord, pledged to bring armed men to war. Patriotism was replaced by fidelity to one's feudal superior.
Chapter 4
What effects of the Crusades does the chapter describe?
The author argues the Crusades profoundly affected Europe: western warriors encountered luxurious life at Constantinople and the Arabian East, and brought home glass, linen, rugs, tapestries, silk, cotton, spices, and sugar. Demand for these Eastern goods became irresistible, and trade between western Europe and the East grew rapidly, enriching Italian cities like Venice.
Chapter 4
Why did Venice win the Eastern trade rivalry?
The author states that Italian cities placed fleets on the Mediterranean, carried crusaders out and brought wares back, and grew wealthy, but their rivalry was fierce and they fought and plundered one another for a monopoly. Venice finally won because her location was favorable: goods moved easily up the Po River into France or over the Alps to the Danube.
Chapter 4
CHAPTER IV.4 cards
Why did Portugal seek a sea route to India, and who led its early exploration?
Portugal sought a new way to reach India because Venice held a monopoly on the only trading route with the Far East, forcing other Christian powers to find a path avoiding Mohammedan lands. Prince Henry "the Navigator" established a naval academy at Point Sagres and sponsored exploration of the African coast, aiming to extend Portugal's power and spread Christianity.
Chapter 5
What three products made the Guinea coast valuable to Portuguese traders?
The Guinea coast yielded resinous gums plus three articles that distinguished African exploitation: gold, ivory, and slaves. This contact brought Christian Europe face to face with a race of ruder culture and different color, and the coast was found worth exploiting. The chapter notes this marks the beginning of European Negro slavery, which the medieval church had abolished from Christian Europe.
Chapter 5
How did religion and later arguments justify enslaving Africans?
The Church taught that heathen Africans were fortunate to be captured by Christians so they might be baptized and converted, since it is better for the body to perish than the soul be cast into hell. Later, after the falsity of this teaching was realized, men argued the Almighty had created the African of a lower state to serve the superior race.
Chapter 5
What was Columbus's geographical error, and what did he actually reach?
Geographers underestimated the earth's circumference, supposing about four thousand miles from Europe to the East Indies instead of fully twelve thousand, and Marco Polo had exaggerated distances traveled. Columbus sailed west expecting to reach Japan in about thirty-five days. In 1492 he sighted islands between the two American continents, called the natives "Indians," and died in 1506 never knowing what he had found.
Chapter 5
CHAPTER V.4 cards
How did the pre-Spanish Filipino population compare with later numbers?
The author estimates the tribes numbered probably not more than 500,000 at Magellan's discovery, while the 1591 Spanish enumeration gives less than 700,000, against nearly 7,000,000 in Barrows's own day. He cites sparse coasts, scarce food, and easy Spanish conquest as evidence the population was a small fraction of its present size.
Chapter 6
What did Dr. Pardo de Tavera argue about Hindu influence in the Philippines?
Pardo de Tavera argued that Sanskrit loanwords in Tagalog, Bisayan, Pampango, and Ilocano—covering intellectual acts, deities, war, dignities, and industry—show not mere commerce but Hindu political and social domination. He held that warfare, religion, literature, industry, and agriculture were at one time in Hindu hands, and that this race was effectively dominant in the islands.
Chapter 6
How did early Filipinos write, according to Padre Chirino?
Chirino describes a syllabary of three vowels serving for five, and twelve consonants that change sound with points above or below, with final consonants supplied by the reader. Writing ran from above downward, left to right, on canes or palm leaves with an iron point. He reports islanders learned Spanish letters quickly, one child surpassing him in three months.
Chapter 6
What was the nature of early Chinese contact with the Philippines?
The author states there is no evidence the Chinese settled or colonized the islands before the Spanish conquest, though their trading fleets came regularly for three hundred years before Magellan. Evidence includes ancient Chinese jars and pottery exhumed near Manila and the writings of Chao Ju-kua, who around 1205 described the country of Mayi and its people.
Chapter 6
CHAPTER VI.4 cards
What was the Royal Audiencia and what powers did it hold?
The Royal Audiencia was a body of noble rank and learned in the law, sent from Spain to form a colonial court in each country. Its powers were not only judicial but also administrative: it acted as a supreme court for settling actions and legal questions, limited the power of the governor or viceroy, and assumed his duties in his absence.
Chapter 7
What was an encomienda and what was the encomendero supposed to provide?
An encomienda was a grant of Indians to the service of a Spaniard, who held power of a master over them and enjoyed the profits of their labor. In return he was supposed to provide for their conversion and religious instruction. The encomendero was not absolute lord of their lives and property, since elaborate protective laws were framed, but grants of subjects apart from land made transfer and sale possible.
Chapter 7
How did Spain regulate colonial trade and colonization?
Spain sought an exclusive monopoly of colonial trade. The Council of the Indies managed colonial affairs from Madrid, and all persons, wares, and ships passing to the colonies had to go through Seville. The Casa de Contratacion directed the monopoly: no one could sail or send goods without a permit, registration, and payment of extraordinary imposts. Trade was forbidden to all except Spaniards.
Chapter 7
Why did the 1525 Loaisa expedition to the Philippines fail?
The expedition sailed under Jofre de Loaisa, with Sebastian del Cano and Andres de Urdaneta aboard. Loaisa and then Del Cano died in mid-ocean; ships were battered by storms; the northeast monsoon drove them to the Moluccas, where the Portuguese fought them and incited natives against them. Of 450 men, only 120 survived, and they fortified Tidor under Hernando de la Torre.
Chapter 7
CHAPTER VII. (part 1)3 cards
Why did Spain send Legaspi's expedition to the Philippines despite Portugal's treaty claims?
The Spanish king, Felipe II, ordered the viceroy of Mexico in 1559 to rediscover islands toward the Moluccas while respecting Portugal's rights within her demarcation. Urdaneta wanted to colonize New Guinea, but the Audiencia of Mexico instructed the expedition to reach and colonize the Philippines, trade for spices, discover a return route to New Spain, and convert the natives, with missionaries accompanying.
Chapter 8
What ceremony did Legaspi perform with Sicatuna on Bohol, and what did it signify?
Legaspi and Sicatuna, the dato of Bohol, performed the blood covenant: each made a small cut in his own arm or breast and drank the other's blood, according to Gaspar de San Augustin mixed with a little wine or water and drunk from a goblet. This was the most sacred bond of friendship among the Filipinos, and friendship so pledged was usually kept with great fidelity.
Chapter 8
How did the Spaniards take Manila in 1570 and then found their city in 1571?
In 1570 Goiti and Salcedo with 120 Spaniards and Bisayan allies anchored off the Pasig. Soliman attacked after a friendly reception; the Spaniards charged, carried the fort, and the natives fled, burning the settlement. Rain and typhoons delayed occupation. In spring 1571 Legaspi returned with 280 men; the rajas declared themselves vassals, and he ordered a fort, palace, convent, church, and 150 houses.
Chapter 8
CHAPTER VII. (part 2)3 cards
How was Limahong's attack on Manila defeated?
Sioco's six hundred men attacked the weak fort of Manila, killing field-marshal Goiti. Though outnumbered, the Spaniards drove the Chinese back but lost heavily; Limahong sent reinforcements and prepared to overwhelm the garrison. Salcedo, having sighted the fleet from Vigan, sailed with fifty musketeers in seven small boats and reached Manila in six days, just in time to help defeat the Chinese and drive them back to their boats at Paranaque.
Chapter 9
What happened to Limahong after his defeat at Manila?
Limahong still sought a settlement in Luzon, so he sailed north, landed in Pangasinan, and began fortifying the mouth of the Lingayen River. In March the Spaniards sent Salcedo with two hundred and fifty Spaniards and fifteen hundred Filipinos, who burned the entire Chinese fleet and scattered the forces. The remainder escaped in small boats they built. A junk from the viceroy of Fukien then arrived requesting Limahong's delivery, and two Augustinian friars returned with it to China.
Chapter 9
What was the significance of Salcedo's death in 1576?
Salcedo died at Vigan in spring 1576 at age twenty-seven. The chapter states his death may be said to close the first period of Philippine history, that of the Conquest, extending from 1565 to 1576. For the next twenty-five years, the author argues, Spanish ambitions turned outward: the Spice Islands, Siam, Cambodia, China, Formosa, and Japan seemed more alluring than the poor, sparsely populated Philippines, making the islands a center for commercial and spiritual conquest of the Orient.
Chapter 9
CHAPTER VII. (part 3)3 cards
Why did the people of Panay flee into the mountains during the Moro attacks?
The people of Panay abandoned their towns and fled into the mountains because they believed the terrible Moro attacks had been inspired by the Spaniards. To check these pirates, Juan Gallinato was sent against Jolo with two hundred Spaniards, but like many later expeditions he accomplished nothing. The chapter states this revealed Spanish inability and began the era of Moro piracy.
Chapter 10
What happened at the Battle of Mariveles between the Spanish and Dutch?
In October 1600, two Dutch vessels of Van Noort's expedition appeared, needing provisions, and captured Spanish and Chinese boats bound for Manila. The Spaniards fitted two galleons, with Oidor Morga commanding. On November 14 they attacked the Dutch, whose crews were reduced to eighty men on both ships. Morga's vessel ran down Van Noort's flagship, and a hand-to-hand fight raged until fire broke out. Morga disengaged, but his ship sank with great loss of life; he and some others reached Fortuna island. Van Noort extinguished the fire and escaped, eventually reaching Holland. His smaller vessel was captured with twenty-five men, all hung at Cavite.
Chapter 10
What four things does the chapter say filled seventeenth-century Philippine history?
The chapter concludes that the history of the seventeenth century in the Philippines is filled with four things: the Moros, the Dutch, anxieties and losses by sea, and the visitations of God. It notes that in 1600 two ships sailed for Acapulco, but one went down off Catanduanes and the other was shipwrecked on the Ladrones, and that Manila also suffered a terrible earthquake that destroyed many houses and the Jesuit church.
Chapter 10
CHAPTER VIII. (part 1)4 cards
According to the 1591 review, how many encomiendas existed in the Philippines and how were they divided?
There were 267 encomiendas in the Philippines in 1591, about twenty-five years after the system was introduced. Thirty-one belonged to the king, and the remainder were held by private persons. The review also recorded the entire population under encomiendas as 166,903 tributes, or 667,612 souls, which the chapter calls the earliest known enumeration of the Philippines' population.
Chapter 11
How did encomenderos abuse tribute collection, according to Salazar?
The tribute was theoretically limited to eight reales yearly per family head, payable in gold or produce. But encomenderos fixed prices extortionately, delaying collection until scarcity when prices were high while demanding the same amount as at harvest. Salazar reports principals were abused or put in the pillory (cepo de cabeza), and that tribute was collected from infants, the aged, and slaves.
Chapter 11
What does the chapter say about the overall effects of Spanish rule on the Filipinos?
The chapter presents two sides. Salazar describes ruin and misery: forced labor in forests and fleets, deaths in the Ilocos mines, famine in Pampanga, and extortionate taxes. But the author argues this picture is probably overdrawn by a bishop jealous of civil authority, and that Spanish rule likely improved Filipino conditions by ending warfare and protecting the weak from the strong, since almost anything is better than anarchy.
Chapter 11
Which regions had the largest populations under encomiendas in 1591?
La Laguna was most populous with 24,000 tributantes and 97,000 inhabitants. The Camarines, including Bicol territory and the Catanduanes, had 21,670 tributantes and over 86,000 people. Ilocos reported 17,130 tributes and 78,520 souls. By contrast, the Bisayan islands were surprisingly small: Masbate and Burias had only 1,600 souls each, and the central group excluding Panay had only 15,833 tributes.
Chapter 11
CHAPTER VIII. (part 2)4 cards
According to Biscaino, what was the mortality rate among Spaniards sent to the Philippines?
Biscaino wrote that within twenty years, of 14,000 Spaniards who had gone to the Philippines, 13,000 had died, leaving not more than 1,000 alive. He attributed this to the unwholesome tropical climate and the losses of conquest. The author notes this high mortality drained Spain of her best manhood.
Chapter 12
How did the Spanish crown restrict trade between the Philippines and Mexico?
The crown limited the Manila-Acapulco commerce under pressure from Peninsula merchants and manufacturers who opposed its expansion. Four galleons were first maintained, dispatched two at a time in successive years; later the number was reduced to one. The galleons carried the annual mail, reinforcements, and Mexican silver for trade with China.
Chapter 12
Who first captured a Philippine galleon, and what did he take?
Thomas Cavendish, with five vessels through the Straits of Magellan in 1584, crossed the Pacific and waited off California until the galleon appeared. She fell to him almost without a fight, carrying 122,000 pesos of gold plus satins, damask, and musk. He landed the Spanish, burned the Santa Anna, attacked the Iloilo shipyard but was repulsed, then sailed home.
Chapter 12
What did Father Sedeno contribute to Manila's construction?
Chirino credits the Jesuit father Sedeno with the hewing of stone, burning of lime, and training of native and Chinese artisans. He himself fashioned the first clay tiles and built the first stone house, and urged and directed others in public works, so the city changed from timber and cane to one of the best constructed in the Indies. He also sought Chinese painters and decorators.
Chapter 12
CHAPTER VIII. (part 3)4 cards
Where were the Chinese (Sangleyes) confined in Manila, and what restrictions did they face?
Chinese merchants and artisans were limited in number and confined to three districts in Manila and to the Parian market. They could not travel about the Islands or go two leagues from the city without written license, nor stay overnight inside the city after the gates closed, on penalty of their lives. They had their own alcalde, tribunal, and jail, and a Dominican mission served the baptized Chinese.
Chapter 13
According to Navarrete, how did the term 'Sangleyes' originate?
Navarrete says the word arose from a misunderstanding. When the Chinese first came to Manila and were asked what they came for, they answered 'Xang Lei,' meaning 'We come to trade.' The Spaniards, not understanding the language, took the words as a country's name and combined them into 'Sangleyes,' the term still used for the Chinese.
Chapter 13
What was Tondo's relationship to Manila, and when was the Pasig bridge built?
Tondo, north of the Pasig, was the center of strong, independent Filipino feeling, colored early with Mohammedanism. It was long the most important and populous part of the metropolis but was not regarded as part of Manila, a name reserved for the walled citadel, until recent times. A bridge across the Pasig was built under Governor Nino de Tabora, who died in 1632.
Chapter 13
What did the author identify as causes of Manila's decline after its early zenith?
The author argues Manila's greatness rested on its founders' daring, its freedom of action, and its location, and that what followed was mostly decline. He cites Spain's waning power, English and Dutch pressure at sea, broken Chinese trade through massacre and reprisal, Malay piracy, and a selfish, shortsighted, criminal colonial policy that paralyzed trade and administration, leaving the Philippines decadent and exploited.
Chapter 13
CHAPTER IX.3 cards
Why did the Dutch begin their own expeditions to the Indies?
Philip II forbade all commerce between Portugal and the Netherlands after annexing Portugal in 1580, cutting off the Dutch Lisbon trade. Deprived of that trade, the Dutch faced commercial ruin or gaining Eastern products themselves, and chose the latter. The destruction of the Armada soon made this possible, and their first expedition under Cornelius Houtman sailed in 1595.
Chapter 14
What was the Dutch trading policy in the Indies?
The Dutch made no attempt to found large colonies for political domination or religious conversion; commerce was their sole object. Their policy was to ally with native rulers, promising aid against Portuguese or Spanish rule in return for exclusive trade privileges. At Bantam in 1602 they secured a factory, and their treaty bound the king to exclude other European nations.
Chapter 14
What was the battle of Playa Honda?
After Spilbergen returned, he met a Spanish fleet of seven galleons and two galleras near Manila. Cannonading began Friday, April 13, and continued all day; the next day the Spaniards boarded and fought with the sword, overwhelming the Dutch. Accounts differ on Dutch numbers, but three vessels were destroyed or taken, including the ship 'The Sun of Holland,' which was burned.
Chapter 14
CHAPTER X.4 cards
What was the political and economic status of the Philippines for Spain from 1663 to 1762?
The chapter states the Philippines lost all political significance as a colony after the abandonment of the Moluccas. From almost every standpoint they were profitless to Spain, with continued deficits made good from the Mexican treasury. Spain's part in the conquest of the East was over, and the islands became little more than a great missionary establishment presided over by the religious orders.
Chapter 15
How did Governor Salcedo fall from power and what was his fate?
A conspiracy against Salcedo embraced the religious, army, civil officials, and merchants. The Inquisition commissioner claimed grounds of heresy because Salcedo was born in Flanders. The commissioner seized him at night with confederates, declared him a prisoner of the Holy Office, and held him chained in the Augustinian convent. Mexico annulled the arrest, but Salcedo died at sea in 1669 returning to the Philippines.
Chapter 15
What were the consequences of Spanish and Jesuit policy on the Ladrone (Mariana) Islands?
The chapter states conversion was carried out by the sword, with natives persecuted from island to island. Disease was introduced and swept off large numbers; others died resisting, and entire islands were depopulated by order of the governor or the Jesuits' desire to gather natives at Guam. If Jesuit accounts are trusted, some one hundred thousand inhabitants nearly reached extinction within a generation.
Chapter 15
What reforms did Governor Bustamante attempt, and what happened to him?
Bustamante found the treasury robbed and exhausted, attached the Acapulco silver cargo to collect debts, and raised three hundred thousand pesos in one year. He refounded the Zamboanga presidio, sent an embassy to Siam, and ordered investigations disclosing seven hundred thousand pesos in defalcations. Opposed by friars and the archbishop, he was killed by a mob headed by friars in 1719; his assassins were never brought to justice.
Chapter 15
CHAPTER XI.4 cards
What did the English expedition against Manila consist of, and how did the Spanish authorities respond?
In September 1762 an English squadron of thirteen vessels under Admiral Cornish arrived in Manila Bay, carrying about five thousand British and Indian soldiers commanded by General Draper. Manila had only 550 men of the Regiment of the King and eighty Filipino artillerists. Despite warnings reaching Manila earlier in 1762, the Spanish authorities made no preparations and initially mistook the fleet for Chinese trading-junks.
Chapter 16
How did the English occupation of Manila end, and what was its territorial extent?
By the Treaty of Paris in 1763, France surrendered most of her colonial possessions to England, but England returned to Spain her captures in Cuba and the Philippines. In March 1764 the Spanish frigate Santa Rosa arrived with Don Francisco de la Torre, bringing news of the treaty and orders for the English to leave. During their occupation the English never extended power far beyond the present limits of Manila.
Chapter 16
Why was the Society of Jesus dissolved, and when were the Jesuits expelled from the Philippines?
The author argues the Jesuits' wealth, trade, and political intrigues, plus their international character and indifference to national loyalty, aroused jealousy among Catholic rulers. They were expelled from Portugal in 1759, France in 1764, and Spain and its possessions by Carlos III's decree of April 2, 1767. The expulsion took effect in the Philippines in 1767, and Pope Clement XIV suppressed the society in July 1773.
Chapter 16
What role did the friars play in resisting the English, and who led the Spanish loyalist government?
Don Simon de Anda y Salazar, named lieutenant-governor and captain-general, left Manila on the night of October 4, 1762, and established an independent Spanish government at Bulacan. The friars took a leading part in resistance: they kept their Indians loyal, portrayed the English as enemies of king and religion, contributed estates and property, and exposed themselves to danger. The Jesuits, by contrast, bore no part and faced charges of treasonable intercourse with the English.
Chapter 16
CHAPTER XII. (part 1)3 cards
How did hemp exports change after Manila opened to foreign trade?
In 1831 hemp exportation was only 346 tons. Six years after the port opened it reached 2,585 tons, and by 1858 it had risen to 412,000 piculs, or 27,500 tons. Nearly two thirds, 298,000 piculs, went to the United States, whose active ship-building trade sought Manila hemp for its shipyards.
Chapter 17
Why did Apolinario de la Cruz's movement turn into an open rebellion?
Apolinario sought to enter a monastic order but was refused, as that privilege was never granted to Filipinos. He founded the Cofradia de San Jose and requested authorization from Manila. The friars, alarmed by a Filipino religious leader, secured condemnation of his plan and orders to arrest his followers, forcing him into independent action. His movement grew to several thousand before being defeated in November and he was executed at twenty-seven.
Chapter 17
What role did the friar play in pueblo government around 1860?
The pueblo was the unit of administration, governed by a gobernadorcillo and a council whose consejales usually represented hamlets. But the Spanish friar, nearly always the parish curate, remained the paternal guardian and administrator. No matter was too minute for his dictation; neither gobernadorcillo nor councillors dared oppose him, the alcalde kept on friendly terms, and the friar served as local inspector of public instruction.
Chapter 17
CHAPTER XII. (part 2)4 cards
What conditions did the 1852 royal decree set for the Jesuits' return to the Philippines?
A royal decree in 1852 authorized the Jesuits to return, on the condition that they devote themselves solely to missions in the unoccupied fields of Mindanao and to the higher education of the Filipinos. This return mattered because, according to the chapter, the opening of education to Filipinos was more important than all other influences on their development.
Chapter 18
What were the main features and limitations of the 1860 public primary school system?
O'Donnell, Spanish minister of war and colonies, founded public primary instruction in 1860: a boys' school and a girls' school in each pueblo, teaching in Spanish. It was not secular, since religious doctrine was primary and the friar-curate was local inspector; not wholly free, since tuition was charged all but the poorest; and not adequate, reaching only a small proportion of children, largely from well-to-do families.
Chapter 18
What happened to the priests Burgos, Zamora, and Gomez after the 1872 Cavite Revolt?
After the Cavite Revolt was suppressed, a council of war condemned forty-one participants, shot on January 27, 1872, at Bagumbayan; eleven more artillery soldiers were condemned but the governor commuted their sentence to life imprisonment. On February 15 the same council sentenced to death by garrote the priests Burgos, Zamora, and Gomez, plus a countryman, Saldua; the sentence was executed on the morning of February 17.
Chapter 18
How did Governor de la Torre's reforms and the friars' opposition affect Filipino opinion?
After Queen Isabella II was deposed and a liberal Spanish republic founded, General de la Torre was sent as governor. He dispensed with pomp, dismissed the halberdier escort, dressed as a civilian, and tried to enforce equality of Spaniard and colonist without distinction of race or birth. Filipinos were encouraged and delighted, while the Spanish population and friars opposed him bitterly; the chapter says this opposition naturally made the friars seem the Filipinos' greatest enemies and spread anti-friar feeling.
Chapter 18
CHAPTER XII. (part 3)3 cards
What agreement did Aguinaldo and fellow insurgents make with the Spanish in 1897?
In 1897, after Primo de Rivera urged reforms and faced friar opposition, Aguinaldo and his fellow insurgents agreed to surrender their arms, dismiss the insurgent forces, and retire from the Islands in exchange for the payment of 1,700,000 pesos. On December 27, 1897, Aguinaldo left the port of Sual for Hongkong.
Chapter 19
Why did Primo de Rivera's proposed reforms matter to the negotiations?
Primo de Rivera urged the home government to make reforms that would greatly lessen the political importance of the friars. The friars vehemently opposed him. The chapter suggests it was probably upon the promise of reform that Aguinaldo and his fellow insurgents agreed to surrender their arms and retire from the Islands.
Chapter 19
How did the Spanish-American War end Spanish rule in the Philippines?
On April 25 the United States declared war on Spain, and on the first day of May an American fleet reached Manila harbor. In the naval fight off Cavite, Spanish dominion — which had lasted with only one brief interruption for 332 years — was broken.
Chapter 19
CHAPTER XIII. (part 1)4 cards
Why did the United States hesitate to recognize the Filipino republic after capturing Manila?
The American government was unwilling to hand the archipelago to the newly organized Filipino republic. It was felt, and with reason, that the government was not truly representative of all the people, that the leaders were untried men, and that the people lacked political training. The United States held it was obligated to ensure a government representing all and doing injustice to none.
Chapter 20
What were the terms of the peace negotiated at Paris in December 1898?
The American government demanded that Spain cede the Islands to the United States and accept $20,000,000 in gold for public works and improvements Spain had made. The negotiations at Paris dragged on for many critical weeks, and the terms became known in December 1898, awakening the worst suspicions among Filipino leaders.
Chapter 20
What did McKinley's January 4, 1899 message to General Otis declare?
McKinley issued a special message declaring that American sovereignty must be recognized without conditions. It was thought in the United States that such a firm declaration would be accepted by the Filipinos and that they would not dare resist. Instead, the message moved the Filipinos at once to frame an independent government, since they did not trust the president's professions.
Chapter 20
What happened to the Spanish fleet at Manila Bay on May 1, 1898?
Dewey entered the Bay of Manila in darkness and made for the Spanish vessels at Cavite. His fleet was more powerful and immeasurably more efficient, and in a few hours the Spanish navy was utterly destroyed, leaving Manila at the mercy of his guns. This catastrophe to Spain caused the smoldering insurrection to break out afresh.
Chapter 20
CHAPTER XIII. (part 2)4 cards
How did Aguinaldo evade American forces after the army disintegrated?
Aguinaldo fled through the Cordillera Central into the Igorrote country, then into Bontoc and Quiangan. On Christmas night 1899 American soldiers camped near his party, but he eluded pursuers for weeks until his trail was lost in the Cagayan valley. He crossed the Sierra Madre to Palanan, where he remained cut off until captured by General Funston's party in June 1901.
Chapter 21
What secret organization replaced the Filipino field army?
Unable to keep a field army, the Filipinos created a secret irregular organization dividing the Islands into zones, each headed by a zone commander, usually a general. These commanders were practically absolute and independent, recruited their own forces, commissioned subordinates, levied contributions, and exercised power of execution by administrative order. The junta ordered assassination of Filipinos who failed to support the cause.
Chapter 21
How did the Civil Philippine Commission and Federal Party hasten peace?
Appointed in spring 1900 to legislate and prepare civil government, the commission reached the Islands in June and began legislating September 1st. The author argues its high character brought understanding with Filipino leaders and assured them of honorable American purposes. In December 1900 influential Filipinos formed the Federal Party to induce surrender of military leaders and acceptance of peace, and by spring 1901 the insurrection rapidly collapsed.
Chapter 21
What was the greatest single loss of the war for the American army?
The death of General Lawton. Near Manila, in the Mariquina Valley, a force under Lawton moved through the hills to surprise San Mateo on December 18, 1899. Lawton, conspicuous in white uniform and helmet and accompanying the front line of skirmishers as was his custom, was struck by a bullet and instantly killed.
Chapter 21
CHAPTER XIII. (part 3)4 cards
What form of government does the author say the Philippines has, and who appoints its officials?
The author describes a territorial government consisting usually of a governor and supreme court appointed by the president of the United States, plus a legislature elected by the people. He argues this form is flexible and advantageous and may be regarded as a permanent rather than merely temporary condition, though whether it prevails in the Philippines depends on the political development and desires of the Filipino people.
Chapter 22
Why does the author argue independence may not benefit the Philippines?
The author argues independence may not be most advantageous because, under present tendencies of international trade, it means economic isolation. It also compels preparedness for war, requiring strong armies, great navies, and heavy economic burdens. He says this is especially true for an archipelago exposed to attack, surrounded by ambitious powers, and near the center of coming struggle. He cites Japan as independent but at great cost.
Chapter 22
What economic advantage does the author claim American control gives the Philippines?
The author argues that under American government the Philippines, like Australia under the British, is compelled to sustain no portion of the burden of exterior defense. He says the navies of the United States protect the integrity of the archipelago, shielding Filipinos from outside interference and permitting them to expend energy on developing their abilities. He concludes American government means freedom of opportunity.
Chapter 22
What does the author say patriotic duty means for Filipinos and for Americans?
For Americans, the author says patriotic duty means belief in the uprightness of national purposes, appreciation of those who worked wisely and unselfishly, loyalty to both governments so long as they rule justly and increase liberty, and recognition of Filipino advances. For Filipinos, it means accepting the established government as better than what preceded, loyalty to their people and public interests overcoming personal selfishness, and obeying laws and using opportunities for self-development.
Chapter 22
CHAPTER XIII. (part 4)4 cards
Which work does the chapter call a valuable survey of the Islands at the start of the nineteenth century?
The chapter identifies Padre Fr. Joaquin Martinez de Zuniga's "Estadismo de las Islas Filipinas, 6 mis viajes por este pais" as a most interesting and valuable survey of conditions in the Islands and among the people at the beginning of the nineteenth century. It was published for the first time extensively annotated by W. E. Retana in two volumes in Madrid in 1893.
Chapter 23
What did Spain establish in 1856 regarding censorship, and how was it composed?
Spain established a permanent commission of censorship in 1856. It was composed of eight persons: one half nominated by the governor and one half by the archbishop. The chapter gives this composition as a note, showing how press oversight was split between colonial executive and church authority.
Chapter 23
Which sources does the chapter cite on Rajah Brooke and Borneo piracy?
The chapter cites Sir Spencer St. John's "Rajah Brooke" (London, 1899) and Keppel's "Expedition to Borneo of H. M. S. Dido for the Suppression of Piracy," with extracts from James Brooke's journal, in two volumes (London, 1846). It also lists Keppel's "A Visit to the Indian Archipelago in H. M. S. Moeandar" (two volumes, London, 1853).
Chapter 23
What do the cited Dominican missionary reports show about raids?
The chapter states that reports of the Dominican missionaries of Nueva Vizcaya and Isabela show the extent and persistence of these raids. It points readers to the missionary publication "El Correo Sino-Annamita" and to Padre Buenaventura Campa's "Los Maybyaos y la Raza Ifugao" (Madrid, 1895) as sources.
Chapter 23
Source and licence
Text used: Project Gutenberg eBook #38269 (Public domain in the United States). Generated from the full text; cards paraphrase the source.
Version: Public domain edition. Retrieved 2026-11-02. Cards reviewed 2026-11-02.
These cards paraphrase the text for study. They are not a substitute for reading the book, and they do not reproduce long passages.
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