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History of Education Flashcards

Levi Seeley · Public domain edition · 199 cards · 53 chapters

Levi Seeley’s History of Education argues that teachers benefit practically from studying educational history and outlines a structured plan of references, notebook work, and optional chapters. The deck covers these framing questions plus early chapters on education’s origins, Karl Schmidt’s stages, environment, schooling versus education, and Chinese education.

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Chapter 1 · Question

According to the preface, what practical uses does studying educational history serve for teachers?

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Introduction4 cards

According to the preface, what practical uses does studying educational history serve for teachers?
The author argues the history of education portrays past theories and methods, warns of error, indicates established truth, shows difficulties surmounted, and encourages teachers with examples of heroism and consecration by educators. He calls it a constant help in the schoolroom, where trials are met with added strength and inspiration from contact with great teachers of the past.
Chapter 1
What three features make up the book's plan of references?
The plan of references has three features: (1) literature listed at the beginning of each chapter; (2) foot references to special citations; and (3) a general bibliography in the Appendix. In the first two, titles are sometimes abbreviated because of frequent repetition; when in doubt, the reader should consult the general bibliography, where all cited authorities appear alphabetically with full titles.
Chapter 1
What notebook outline does the author suggest for classes using this book?
The author suggests a uniform notebook outline: (1) historical and geographical; (2) home life; (3) physical, religious, and aesthetic education; (4) elementary and higher education; (5) summary of lessons taught; (6) educators, covering (a) life, (b) writings, (c) pedagogical teachings. Each teacher may modify it, and it aids review and fixes subject-matter in the student's mind.
Chapter 1
On what general plan is the book based, and which chapters may teachers omit?
The author accepts the general plan of Karl Schmidt's 'Geschichte der Paedagogik,' the most comprehensive work on the subject, though the specific plan is the author's own. It studies history, environment, and internal, social, political, and religious conditions. Teachers may omit chapters on China, India, Persia, and Israel, though their negative lessons are instructive and illustrate the plan.
Chapter 1

CHAPTER I4 cards

According to the chapter, why should the study of education begin with its history?
The author argues that history of education is academic in character, furnishing information about past systems, methods, theories, and practices. It should be placed early in the professional pedagogical course to serve as a foundation for an improved educational science profiting from human experience. It presents great problems, shows how some were solved, and introduces students directly to pedagogical questions that have influenced the world.
Chapter 2
How does Karl Schmidt describe the stages of humanity's development?
Schmidt says the history of the world is the history of the development of the human soul, with the same law ruling in the individual, a people, and humanity. He calls oriental peoples the child of humanity, classical antiquity the period of youth, and Christ the type of perfected manhood. He holds that all history is development of life toward God.
Chapter 2
Why does the chapter say environment and geography must be studied to understand a people's education?
The author argues one must first know a people's social, political, and religious life, often requiring geography and history because climate, occupation, and environment shape character. Examples given: the Persians, surrounded by enemies, required martial education; the Spartans emphasized physical education because of serfdom controlling the many by the few. Temperate and torrid zones produce different intellectual results.
Chapter 2
What distinction does the chapter draw between Education and Schooling?
The author states education includes all forces entering into civilization and elevation of man—home, school, state, church, environment, or all combined. It is a continuous process beginning at birth and ceasing only at life's end. Schooling is the educative process carried on during a limited period of the child's life under teachers' guidance. The school is a product of civilization, made necessary by division of labor.
Chapter 2

CHAPTER II4 cards

What was the main criticism of Chinese education regarding mental faculties?
The author argues Chinese education cultivates memory to the neglect of other mental powers, emphasizing acquiring knowledge over developing human faculties. Fear, not interest, drives study, and thought awakening is not encouraged. The author calls this the best argument against instruction that appeals solely to memory, producing a conservative, non-progressive people.
Chapter 3
How were Chinese civil service examinations structured and who could take them?
Candidates passed three district examinations for the lowest degree, 'Budding Intellect,' with only about one percent succeeding. Every three years, an examiner from Pekin conducted the second-degree exam, and a third was held in Pekin. Examinations were strict and fair, excluding no one, so any able child could reach high office. In 1905 an edict abolished the old system.
Chapter 3
What was the role of women and girls in Chinese home education?
The wife existed to serve and obey her husband; abuse from him was not punishable, while she received one hundred stripes for abusing him. Instruction at home and school was confined to boys. Boys wore fine clothes, girls rags; only girls were ever sacrificed. The mother, often unable to read, instilled politeness and obedience. Women were excluded from the education scheme.
Chapter 3
What teaching method did Confucius use with his pupils?
Confucius began teaching in a private school at age twenty-two. He rejected no pupil of ability and ambition but accepted none without those qualities. He said, 'When I have presented one corner of a subject, and the pupil cannot make out the other three, I do not repeat the lesson.' His analects include 'Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous.'
Chapter 3

CHAPTER III4 cards

What are the four great castes in India and their roles?
The Brahmans are the highest caste—priests, scholars, lawyers, physicians, and teachers. The warriors comprise the army and office holders. The merchants, mechanics, and farmers form the productive middle. The servants receive no education except in politeness and matters of their station. Each caste must respect higher castes, and association with a lower caste is considered degradation.
Chapter 4
What is the Hindu idea of education according to the chapter?
The chapter states the Hindu idea of education is to prepare for the future life, contrasting it with the Chinese idea, which is to prepare for this life. Children in the home are trained from their earliest years with reference to this idea. The author presents this as a defining difference between the two systems.
Chapter 4
How is elementary instruction conducted in India?
All teachers belong to the Brahman caste and receive no salary, depending on gifts. Discipline is mild and generally humane. Instruction happens under trees in pleasant weather, or in a tent or shed when bad. Reading, writing, and arithmetic are taught, but religion is the principal theme, with memorizing Brahma's holy sayings taking much time. Servants and girls are excluded.
Chapter 4
What restrictions does the chapter describe for women in India?
The chapter says women have no educational advantages and are regarded more as servants than equals of husbands. A woman may never appear uninvited before any man except her husband, causing hardships in sickness since medical attendance requires a female medical missionary. The Shastas demand strict obedience to the husband, and practices like sale of girls for wives and polygamy worsen women's condition.
Chapter 4

CHAPTER IV4 cards

How was a Persian boy's education divided after age seven?
After the seventh year the boy was taken from home and educated by the State. From seven to fifteen he lived in public institutions learning arms, riding, athletics, religious proverbs, and prayers. From fifteen to twenty-five came military training. From twenty-five to fifty he served as a soldier, after which he could retire with honor; the most competent stayed on as teachers.
Chapter 5
What were the four criticisms of Persian education given in the chapter?
The chapter lists four: the State robs the family of its inherent right to educate children; it neglects intellectual education, overemphasizing physical and moral training and demanding too much of a man's active life; it makes preparation for war the highest aim, so the arts of peace are not cultivated; and it excludes women from education.
Chapter 5
What was Zoroaster's dualistic philosophy and its judgment after death?
Zoroaster taught two ruling principles: Ormuzd, light, and Ahriman, darkness, in constant conflict with man at the center; Ormuzd, as creator, has greater power and good will finally prevail. No remission of sin is taught. Judgment is a bridge: if good deeds outweigh evil, one passes to paradise; if evil outweighs good, one is cast off forever; a balance brings another period of probation.
Chapter 5
What was the role of the home in early Persian childhood?
Children stayed with the mother until seven. The wife asked her husband nine times each morning what he wished her to do, and the teacher ranked next to the father in esteem. An astrologer named the child and foretold his destiny. Telling right from wrong was forbidden before age five, and no corporal punishment before seven. Training was chiefly physical, with truthfulness and justice inculcated early.
Chapter 5

CHAPTER V4 cards

How did the Jews' education and government come to be called theocratic?
The early Jews were nomadic, living in tents and tending flocks, governed by patriarchs who made laws under God's command as His representative. Because God directly, or through the patriarch, led and instructed the people, their education, like their government, is called theocratic. The home carried this out, with fathers teaching children in knowledge and service of the Lord.
Chapter 6
What did the rabbis require of every community in A.D. 64?
The rabbis required every community to support a school and made attendance compulsory, which the chapter calls the first instance of compulsory education on record. Towns split by a stream without a bridge supported a school in each part. No teacher had more than twenty-five pupils; with forty pupils, two teachers were employed.
Chapter 6
How were teachers regarded and selected in Jewish education?
Teachers were respected even more than parents, since parents prepared children for the present but teachers for the future. Only mature married men were employed. The chapter quotes the saying that learning from a young master is like eating green grapes and new wine, while a master of mature years is like ripe grapes and old wine.
Chapter 6
What subjects and methods characterized the Jewish elementary school?
Children entered school at six, after years devoted to physical exercise and bodily growth. Subjects included reading, writing, natural history, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy, with Scripture taught to all. Methods aimed at understanding, even at the cost of repeating four hundred times. Discipline was humane: children punished with one hand and caressed with two, with corporal punishment only over age eleven.
Chapter 6

CHAPTER VI3 cards

What were Egypt's three main castes, and what did the first caste control?
The first and highest caste was the priests, who represented learning and wealth, owned one third of the land tax-free, held all offices, and were the surveyors, engineers, and teachers. The second caste was the military class, also noble, each member receiving about six and one half acres tax-free. The third, unprivileged caste was subdivided into farmers and boatmen, mechanics and tradespeople, and common laborers. Slaves ranked below all castes.
Chapter 7
What did Egyptian education teach the lower castes, and who were the only teachers?
Priests were the only teachers, and education was suited to the different castes. In the lowest caste the principal subjects were writing and mathematics, with the papyrus plant supplying writing material and arithmetic using concrete methods that anticipated modern principles. Religious instruction and severe bodily exercise, especially running, were also included. Schooling was very inexpensive, and a boy usually followed his father's trade, though not inflexibly.
Chapter 7
What institutions of higher learning existed in ancient Egypt, and what was Alexandria known for?
Institutions for training priests and soldiers were located at Thebes, Memphis, and Heliopolis. The Museum of Alexandria reached its height around the middle of the third century B.C. and made Alexandria the center of world learning, attracting philosophers from Athens and Rome. Its celebrated library, fostered by the Ptolemies, held a vast collection variously estimated at four hundred thousand to seven hundred thousand volumes, though ancient rolls held less than modern books.
Chapter 7

CHAPTER VII4 cards

What was the Olympic Games' original purpose and how often were they held?
The Olympian games were at first religious in character, celebrated in honor of Zeus at Olympia in Elis. They took place once every four years, a period called an Olympiad that furnished the basis for computing time, with the first Olympiad beginning in 776 B.C. All the states took part, and hostilities were suspended during the games.
Chapter 8
What events were included in the Olympian games over time?
At first there was only the foot race. Later wrestling, jumping, and throwing the spear were added. Still later, chariot and horse races and contests in painting, sculpture, and literature were included. Only Greek citizens of good moral character could enter, and the prize was a simple wreath of laurel or olive.
Chapter 8
What effects did the Olympian games have on the Greek people?
The games tended to unite the people and cultivate the arts of peace. They encouraged the development of perfect bodies through training designed to produce superior athletes. They inculcated broader views by bringing together people from different lands, incited intellectual ambition through later literary productions, and created a manly spirit and stimulated national patriotism.
Chapter 8
Why did Greece develop two different standards of education?
Greece's mountainous surface cut the country into many small states, and Athens and Sparta became the two most important cities. Around them centered two diverse forms of civilization, and in them were developed two very different standards of education. The author therefore treats the education of these two cities separately.
Chapter 8

CHAPTER VIII4 cards

How did Athenian education differ from Spartan in its central ideals?
The author argues Athens prized liberty, knowledge, and beauty, believing truest beauty came through developing the mind, though the body was not neglected. Sparta's spirit was tyranny. Athens produced Pericles, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, created lasting literature, and developed art, while Sparta's ruin was sure and speedy and Athens's influence still lives.
Chapter 9
What was a pedagogue in Athenian education and what were his duties?
The pedagogue was usually an old and trusted slave who escorted the boy to school, was responsible for his morals and manners, and could punish disobedience, though he was not intrusted with actual teaching. He was the boy's constant attendant. Wealthy parents committed children to such slaves, which the chapter says could not have happened had slaves been as debased as Sparta's.
Chapter 9
What did the Sophists contribute, and what criticism does the chapter make of them?
The Sophists flourished in the fifth century B.C., with Protagoras and Gorgias as greatest exponents. They charged large fees, wandered place to place, and discussed error and wrong as eloquently as truth and justice, aiming to foster eloquence rather than discover truth, hence 'sophistry.' Yet Schwegler credits them with general knowledge, logic, grammar, and rhetoric, aiding Athens's intellectual activity.
Chapter 9
What control did the Athenian State exercise over schools?
The State furnished gymnasia where schools could be held, fixed teachers' qualifications, school hours, and the number of pupils per teacher, and held yearly public examinations at its own expense. Schools were private institutions supported by private means under State inspection, and parents freely chose their children's education, aimed at the individual's good rather than the State's glory.
Chapter 9

CHAPTER IX4 cards

What was the Socratic Method, and what did Socrates contribute to education?
Socrates assumed ignorance himself and used a series of suggestive questions to lead pupils or opponents into admissions that finally established the truth he saw at the outset. This dialectical, inductive form of teaching was an important contribution to education. He taught no positive doctrines and left no writings; Xenophon and Plato recorded his teachings.
Chapter 10
How did Plato divide people and structure education in his Republic?
Plato divided people into common people (no education provided), guardians (music, gymnastics, writing, arithmetic), and rulers (adding geometry, astronomy, rhetoric, philosophy). The State controls all citizens, education is compulsory, and children belong to the State. Selection occurs at twenty and again at thirty, with fifteen years of State service before philosophy at fifty.
Chapter 10
What was Aristotle's pedagogy regarding the stages of education?
Aristotle held education is a lifelong task beginning at birth. The first seven years are spent at home under parents, emphasizing physical development, obedience, simple food and clothing, and wholesome play. From seven to fourteen comes direct intellectual training, and from fourteen to twenty-one exercises preparing for life, with simple diet and severe physical training to counter adolescence and prepare for war.
Chapter 10
What did Plato mean by saying the good soul improves the body?
Plato gave predominance to intellectual over physical culture, arguing that if the mind is educated it will take care of the body, for the good soul improves the body and not the good body the soul. He taught that education aims to bring all of man's powers into harmonious cooperation.
Chapter 10

CHAPTER X4 cards

What were the three classes of Sparta's inhabitants and their approximate numbers?
Sparta's population consisted of citizens, about nine thousand noble families who ruled; Perioeci, about thirty thousand families of freemen living around Sparta who were subject but not enslaved; and Helots, roughly three hundred thousand slaves. The Perioeci and Helots resented subjugation and watched for chances to revolt, so the nobles relied on martial training to maintain supremacy by superior force despite their small numbers.
Chapter 11
How did Sparta educate boys from age six or seven, and what was the aim?
At six or seven the boy left home and the State took full jurisdiction. Boys lived in groups under young men, with almost wholly physical training: simple food, coarse clothing, sleeping in barracks or open air, and enduring blows without complaint. Reading and writing were despised as fit only for slaves; the only intellectual study was music, playing the lyre to accompany the dance. The aim was strong, supple bodies prepared for soldiering.
Chapter 11
What does the chapter say about weak or deformed Spartan children?
The chapter states it is said that weak and unpromising children were either killed at birth or abandoned to wild beasts on the mountains, because the State would train only strong children likely to make good soldiers. The author notes it is probable many were rescued and reared by the lower classes, which might partly explain their fierce resistance to those who deprived them of liberty. The author argues that if other nations had encouraged this practice, many great benefactors would have died in infancy.
Chapter 11
What was Lycurgus's role and what customs did his laws introduce?
The chapter notes much about Lycurgus is mythical and uncertain, though Curtius says a legislator named Lycurgus really lived in the ninth century B.C. He formed Sparta's constitution to check luxury and encourage simple habits. His laws led to common mess tables of fifteen, children sitting silently at them, simple food, division of land into nine thousand citizen parts and thirty thousand Perioeci parts, iron-only money, and State control of children and marriage.
Chapter 11

CHAPTER XI4 cards

Who was chiefly responsible for a Roman child's early education, and what did she teach?
In Rome the mother, not the father, handled the child's instruction for the first six or seven years. She taught strict obedience and politeness, instructed the children in the Twelve Tables of Roman Law, corrected pronunciation, and taught poems from the great masters. The author notes this early pronunciation work prepared the way for later training in oratory, the most important Roman study.
Chapter 12
How did elementary schools under the literators operate in Rome?
Elementary schools were public but supported by private means, run by literators usually of little culture and no social standing. Discipline was severe, with the rod used as needed. Subjects were reading, writing, and arithmetic, with great care for pronunciation; writing used a stylus on waxed tablets. The aim was practical preparation for life. These schools served ages five to twelve but did not reach the highest classes, who preferred private tutors.
Chapter 12
What happened at sixteen, and what vocations could a Roman boy choose?
At sixteen the boy was inducted into manhood with ceremony and clothed in the toga virilis. He then chose among five vocations: oratory, politics, arms, law, and agriculture. He was assigned experienced persons in his field, taken to the forum or senate to hear orators, or to military officers for army training. Those without talent for the others went to farms for instruction in agriculture.
Chapter 12
What criticisms does the author level at Roman education?
The author lists several: it instilled respect for law and authority; it honored the home and mother, advancing over many ancient nations; but it was not a State institution, so advantages were unequal. Its end was practical preparation and wealth rather than developing all human powers. It was superficial, applying Greek culture to Roman conditions, failed to shape the nation, and ignored the masses and women.
Chapter 12

CHAPTER XII4 cards

What did Cicero teach about corporal punishment of children?
Cicero held that corporal punishment should be used only when all else has failed, that the child should not be degraded by the mode of punishment, that it should never be administered in anger, that it should be deferred until teacher and pupil have had time to reflect, and that reasons should be given so the child may see its justice. The chapter calls these teachings of great pedagogical importance.
Chapter 13
How did Quintilian's school and career gain official standing in Rome?
Quintilian founded a school at Rome and ran it successfully for twenty years, teaching children of distinguished patrician families, including Domitian's grandnephews. Vespasian created for him a chair of rhetoric and gave him the title 'Professor of Oratory'—the first instance in history of State endowment of a chair for teaching a specific subject. At fifty-three he retired to write.
Chapter 13
What did Quintilian argue about public schools versus other education?
Quintilian held that public schools are preferable to other means of education, because they do not subject the child to greater moral danger while they stimulate him through association, friendship, and example to nobler endeavor. This is one of his listed pedagogical teachings, alongside beginning education in earliest childhood and studying the child's individuality.
Chapter 13
Why does the chapter say Seneca failed as Nero's tutor?
Seneca became Nero's tutor when the boy was eleven, and the chapter says the lad had likely already formed vicious habits; Seneca had great trouble managing him and did not eradicate the evil tendencies that bore terrible fruit later. The chapter also says Seneca drew up Nero's state papers, including one defending matricide, which brought deserved odium and suggests he lacked moral independence.
Chapter 13

CHAPTER XIII4 cards

According to the chapter, what is the central pedagogic truth of Christ's teaching?
The author argues that the central pedagogic truth of Christ's teaching is that all education is for the individual. Oriental education aimed at the interests of the State, but Christian education aims at the interests of the individual. The State is the creature of man, not man of the State, and the highest State ideal is one where people rule and liberty is greatest.
Chapter 14
How does the chapter describe the position of women under Christian teaching?
The chapter states that Christianity taught marriage is a divine rite and husband and wife are equal. In the pagan world, woman was simply man's servant, bound to do his bidding and divorceable for trivial cause or none. The author argues the home in the Christian sense did not exist before this, because husband and wife were not one.
Chapter 14
What obstacles slowed the early Christians' efforts to educate their children?
The chapter lists several obstacles: the early Christians were mostly poor, many were ignorant servants and slaves converted from paganism, and they were few and scattered. They also faced persecution from Roman rulers suspicious of their beliefs, lacked Christian literature while condemning pagan literature, and met general resistance to radically new ideas.
Chapter 14
Why did early Christians avoid pagan schools and literature?
The chapter explains that Christians would not send children to pagan schools because they feared moral and intellectual contamination, especially for converts from paganism. The early Fathers felt contact with pagan literature was dangerous, so converts were urged to abstain from it entirely. Having no literature of their own, Christians taught mainly Bible passages and Church rites.
Chapter 14

CHAPTER XIV3 cards

What six characteristics does Seeley identify in Christ's teaching method?
Seeley lists six: teaching suited to his hearers' capacity, abundant illustrations, simplicity combined with logic, drawing lessons from Nature, elevating and enforcing truth, and earnestness full of sympathy. He argues these principles 'contain the sum and substance of all true pedagogy,' citing Karl Schmidt that Christ gave 'the eternal principles of pedagogy' by example and teaching.
Chapter 15
How does Seeley say Christ adapted his teaching to different hearers?
Seeley argues Christ matched his approach to each person's capacity: with the learned Nicodemus he plunged at once into profound doctrines, but with the ignorant Samaritan woman his approach to truth was 'most simple and gradual.' Parables like the sower were suggested by surroundings his audience knew, so 'no one ever failed to understand him.'
Chapter 15
What does Seeley say Christ's sympathy led him to do?
Seeley states Christ's sympathy went out to the people as 'sheep having no shepherd,' leading him to feed the multitude, heal the sick, raise the dead, take little children in his arms and bless them, and weep over Jerusalem. Seeley calls this closeness to the lives and hearts of those instructed 'one of the grandest lessons' left for teachers of all time.
Chapter 15

CHAPTER XV4 cards

Who were the foremost leaders in education during the first Christian period?
The apostles and Church Fathers led educational matters, establishing schools and serving as teachers themselves. Figures like Paul, Origen, Chrysostom, Basil the Great, and Augustine promoted education as the chief handmaid of the Church. The chapter states all early Christian educational progress centers around these men, who instructed the head as well as the heart.
Chapter 16
Why did the Church control education during this period?
The State had not yet assumed the obligation of educating youth, and only rare instances of state involvement appear. The Church was the mother of the schools, and her authority was supreme, acknowledged by all temporal powers. Since she could not furnish means for universal education, nearly all effort went to training the priesthood and perpetuating the Church.
Chapter 16
What services did monasteries render to education?
Monasteries were long the centers of learning and the only places where schools existed. They served as repositories of valuable manuscripts, copied with marvelous diligence and preserved for future generations. They adopted courses of study that, though incomplete, were efficiently carried out and formed the basis of future courses. Their influence for many centuries was of great value to learning.
Chapter 16
How did the crusades and Teutonic peoples affect education?
The crusades, primarily religious movements, were also educational: they infused new life into stagnant Europe, aroused physical and mental activity, and led to establishing schools and universities. The Teutonic peoples—German, Anglo-Saxon, Scandinavian—joined the Latin race in Christian civilization, and the chapter says education was greatly enhanced through these combined influences.
Chapter 16

CHAPTER XVI4 cards

What were catechumen schools and whom did they originally serve?
Catechumen schools were the first Christian schools, created to instruct converts (catechumens) in the faith before baptism and church admission. Converts were divided into classes, first two and later four, and taught the rudiments of Christianity. Initially they served adults only; children were admitted later, when reading and writing were added. Protogenes established a school at Odessa teaching reading, writing, Scripture, and psalm-singing, called the first Christian common school.
Chapter 17
What educational principles did Chrysostom set forth?
Chrysostom taught that teachers must lower themselves to pupils' capacity to elevate them, as Christ did; that teachers should not do for pupils what pupils can do themselves, since Christ suggested truths for disciples to discover; that Christian life and example are education's foundation; that women, especially mothers, are children's natural educators; and that religious instruction is essential, with children raised in the nurture and admonition of the Lord.
Chapter 17
How did Basil the Great's pedagogy handle punishment and teaching authority?
Basil held that every misdeed should be punished so the punishment exercises self-command and corrects the fault: a child who lies, swears, or quarrels gets solitude and fasting; a greedy child stands hungry while others eat. He also urged that orphans and dependents be taught in the cloister, that the Bible be the chief textbook, that laity as well as monks and priests may teach, and that young children learn good habits early.
Chapter 17
Why was the catechetical school at Alexandria founded and what did it teach?
Pantaenus established it around A.D. 181 to instruct learned men in church doctrine, prepare believers to answer philosophers, and train teachers, since pagans in Alexandria had better schools and trained thinkers. Though a theological school, it also taught philosophy, rhetoric, grammar, and geometry. It served adults only and resembled a university. It was higher than the catechumen school in course study and in the learning of students and professors.
Chapter 17

CHAPTER XVII4 cards

When and how did the conflict between pagan and Christian schools end?
The conflict continued through the fifth century until 529, when the Christians gained a complete victory. Justinian decreed the abolition of pagan schools and temples, finally destroying paganism. After 529, education was entirely in the hands of the Church for the next thousand years, and only Christian schools remain to be considered.
Chapter 18
What did Tertullian believe about pagan philosophy and literature?
Tertullian was bitterly opposed to everything pagan, refusing to use anything made by pagans or have dealings with their schools or writings, which excluded classic literature. He held that philosophy of whatever kind is dangerous, claiming it makes man arrogant and less inclined to faith. His attempt to replace classic literature had no permanent result.
Chapter 18
What are Augustine's five pedagogical principles?
Augustine's pedagogy holds that all teaching is based on faith and authority; all pagan literature must be excluded from schools; the chief subject is history pursued in narrative form; instruction should make abundant use of observation; and the teacher must be earnest and enthusiastic. In theology and morals he based all teaching on authority rather than investigation.
Chapter 18
How does the chapter assess the Church's role in medieval education?
The author argues the Church's power was not always exercised for humanity's good but often for her own ends. Yet all education was done by her, so the world owes her gratitude. She did not undertake education of the masses, a task beyond her power and perhaps her vision, but great honor is due for medieval educational accomplishments.
Chapter 18

CHAPTER XVIII4 cards

What two principles made the Benedictine order the most successful monastic order?
The chapter states that Benedict's two important principles, to which cloisters had hitherto been unaccustomed, were industry and strict discipline. These principles made the Benedictine order the most successful and beneficent of all monastic orders, and it grew rapidly, with more than 250 monasteries within a hundred years of its founding at Monte Cassino in 529.
Chapter 19
What subjects made up the trivium and the quadrivium?
The seven liberal arts were divided into the trivium, comprising grammar, rhetoric, and logic, and the quadrivium, comprising arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy. The full course required seven years, Latin was the only language used, and the trivium was the more popular course, considered an absolute necessity for anyone claiming culture.
Chapter 19
How did the monasteries preserve classic literature despite Church opposition?
The chapter notes that although many Church Fathers were bitterly opposed to pagan literature, the monasteries copied it with great industry and preserved it with care. The archives of these institutions have yielded remarkable and valuable manuscripts that otherwise would have been lost to the world. This preservation of classic literature is listed first among the benefits the monasteries conferred on civilization.
Chapter 19
What was the curriculum of the seven liberal arts, and what did it omit?
The seven liberal arts formed the basis of secular instruction in monasteries and all schools for several centuries, with religious instruction always remaining prominent. The course required seven years and used Latin exclusively, so native tongues suffered. Notably, history had no place in the curriculum, and arithmetic before Arabic notation relied on finger counting and a reckoning board.
Chapter 19

CHAPTER XIX4 cards

What was the stated object of scholasticism, and when did it flourish?
Scholasticism aimed to harmonize ancient philosophy, especially Aristotle's, with Christian doctrine. It spanned the ninth to fifteenth centuries, with greatest activity between the eleventh and thirteenth. Called the philosophy of the Middle Ages, it stressed reason over authority, a principle the chapter says would tend to change the whole spirit of education.
Chapter 20
Who does the chapter name as leaders of the scholastic movement?
Erigena, a ninth-century teacher at Charles the Bald's court and later Oxford, is called the first prominent leader. Schwegler names Anselm (born about 1033) the beginner and founder of scholasticism. Greater still was Abelard (born 1079), whose eloquence drew students worldwide to Paris, making it the movement's center. Aquinas, Duns Scotus, and Occam are also named.
Chapter 20
How did Aquinas and Duns Scotus differ, and why did this matter?
Schwegler places them at scholasticism's summit as founders of two schools: Aquinas (Dominican, 1225-1274) exalted the understanding, Duns Scotus (Franciscan, 1265-1308) the will. Schwegler argues this theoretical-versus-practical split began scholasticism's downfall, since its premise of the oneness of faith and knowledge fell away.
Chapter 20
What benefits does the chapter's summary credit to scholasticism?
The summary lists six: attempting to harmonize philosophy with Christianity; basing learning on reason and investigation rather than authority, an impulse toward science; founding universities like Paris, Heidelberg, Bologna, Prague, and Vienna; recognizing the desirability of a universal language and church; imparting fresh vigor to education; and, per Schwegler, introducing the principle of the thinking spirit.
Chapter 20

CHAPTER XX4 cards

What were Charlemagne's educational deficiencies and how did he address them?
Charlemagne was ignorant of letters and lacked intellectual training as a young man, having been educated as a knight who valued arms over letters. After taking the throne, he recognized his deficiencies and studied diligently, receiving instruction from learned men at court, mastering Latin, becoming familiar with Greek, and learning grammar, rhetoric, logic, music, astronomy, and natural history. He never learned to write well due to beginning late in life.
Chapter 21
How did Charlemagne's view of church and state differ from the prevailing idea?
The prevailing idea was that education should serve the interests of the Church. Charlemagne turned thought toward the national idea, believing in religious training but insisting the Church was subordinate to the State and that his will was law over both. He required priests to preach in native tongues rather than Latin and decreed that monasteries refusing to open their doors to children for schooling should be closed.
Chapter 21
What educational measures did Charlemagne decree for clergy, nobles, and the masses?
Charlemagne required priests to be able to read and write, know the Holy Scriptures and chief doctrines, and instruct the people. He required monks to teach both inside and outside monasteries, encouraged education among nobles while intimating that merit rather than noble birth would earn favor, and introduced compulsory education for all children, decreeing truants be first deprived of food and, if that failed, brought before him.
Chapter 21
What was Alcuin's role in Charlemagne's educational reforms?
Alcuin of England was the most celebrated teacher of his time and one of Charlemagne's instructors. Charlemagne established the 'School of the Palace' and placed Alcuin at its head, where the emperor's children and courtiers were taught. Alcuin was also the emperor's counselor in educational matters, and it was probably his influence that led Charlemagne to adopt broad views concerning the culture of his people.
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What did Alfred the Great do to lay the foundation of England's naval greatness?
Alfred built ships to defend the country against Danish pirates, which the chapter credits with laying the foundation of England's naval greatness. This came amid years of war with the Danes, who had taken the eastern part of the island; Alfred fought with varying success until he made peace by diplomacy, giving them territory, and later won them to peaceful acceptance of his rule over a united England.
Chapter 22
How did Alfred divide his day, according to the chapter?
The chapter states Alfred was very methodical and divided his day into three equal parts of eight hours each: eight hours for government, eight hours for religious devotion and study, and the remaining eight hours for sleep, recreation, and the recuperation of his body. This three-part division is presented as evidence of his orderly habits rather than as a schedule imposed on anyone else.
Chapter 22
How did Alfred come to learn to read, and at what age?
Alfred did not learn to read until he was twelve years old. His mother then motivated him by promising a book to whichever of her sons first committed a Saxon poem to memory. With indomitable energy he mastered reading, learned the poem, and won the prize. The chapter says he gave much attention to literary matters throughout his life, translating portions of the Bible and other books into Anglo-Saxon.
Chapter 22
How did Alfred's educational aims differ from Charlemagne's, per the chapter?
The chapter says Charlemagne's intellectual activity likely spurred Alfred's ambition, but Alfred did not follow Charlemagne in seeking universal education. Instead he urged that every freeman's children be able to read and write and receive instruction in Latin. The author argues this distinction persisted: the Germans encouraged universal education, while the English attended chiefly to educating the higher classes. Alfred also founded monasteries as centers of learning and seems to have helped lay foundations from which Oxford grew.
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What were the seven perfections of the knight taught in feudal education?
The seven perfections were horsemanship, swimming, use of bow and arrow, swordsmanship, hunting, chess-playing, and verse-making. These replaced the seven liberal arts of monastic schools. The author explains their purpose was to prepare for the active life the knight would lead, in contrast to monastic schooling, which preserved learning for Church duties and the life to come.
Chapter 23
How was a knight's education divided into three periods?
First period: birth to age seven, spent at home under the mother's direction, teaching obedience, politeness, respect for elders, religion, and physical health. Second period: ages seven to fourteen, as a page under a lady's care, learning music, poetry, chess, courtly manners, and treatment of women. Third period: from fourteen as an esquire learning war, riding, jousting, and fencing; knighted at twenty-one.
Chapter 23
What vows did a knight take at his knighting ceremony?
After partaking of the sacrament, the knight took vows to speak the truth, defend the weak, honor womanhood, and use his sword for the defense of Christianity. The author notes that faithfulness to the vow to defend Christianity eventually led to the overthrow of chivalry, as will appear in the study of the crusades.
Chapter 23
How were girls educated under the feudal system?
Girls remained at home and learned domestic arts and the etiquette required by chivalric homage to women. They were taught reading, writing, and poetry. Daughters of better families were sometimes gathered in a castle where a kind of school taught reading, writing, poetry, singing, stringed instruments, religion, and sometimes French and Latin. The author argues no other class in the Middle Ages paid such attention to women's education.
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What did the first successful crusade accomplish, and who led it?
Organized by feudal lords under Godfrey of Bouillon, it gathered six hundred thousand men plus one hundred thousand mounted troops. After losses reduced their forces to sixty thousand, they took Jerusalem and established a Latin kingdom with Godfrey at its head, lasting from 1096 to 1099.
Chapter 24
Why did the Second Crusade fail?
Conrad III of Germany and Louis VII of France led it from 1147 to 1149. Jealousies arose between the rival leaders, who cared more for personal glory than for the crusade's purpose. As a result, only a small portion of the three hundred thousand soldiers ever reached the Holy Land, and the crusade failed.
Chapter 24
How did the Third Crusade end, and who led it?
Led by Richard the Lion-Hearted of England, Frederick Barbarossa of Germany, and Philip Augustus of France, it ran from 1189 to 1192. Barbarossa went overland while Richard and Philip traveled by water. Rivalries prevented successful warfare, but a truce with the humane Saladin guaranteed protection to Christians.
Chapter 24
What educational results does the chapter attribute to the Crusades?
The author lists seven: nations united by a common purpose; increased knowledge of Eastern culture; stimulated Mediterranean commerce, enriching Venice and Genoa; broken feudal power; widened thought and prepared an intellectual revival; philosophy emancipated from theology at Paris; and, per G. W. Cox, rolling back Mohammedan conquest from Constantinople, probably saving Europe.
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According to Laurie, what external force urged men toward deeper study of the liberal arts?
The author cites Laurie, who argues the universities were a natural development of cathedral and monastery schools, but the external motive force was the Saracenic schools of Bagdad, Babylon, Alexandria, and Cordova. The Saracens, in contact with Greek literature, translated Hippocrates, Galen, Aristotle, and other classics, thereby restoring what Laurie calls the 'university life' of the Greeks.
Chapter 25
How did the universities of Salerno and Bologna differ in subject and origin?
Salerno, the oldest, was a public school from A.D. 1060 and privileged from 1100; it taught medicine only and was established by a converted Jew, independent of Church and State. Bologna taught law only and was recognized in 1158 by Frederick I, who gave it privileges; by the end of the twelfth century an estimated twelve thousand students, mostly foreign, had flocked to it.
Chapter 25
Why was the University of Paris considered the greatest medieval university?
Paris, evolved from a cathedral school, retained a strong theological tendency and attracted at least twenty thousand students. Philip Augustus gave it corporate privileges and Pope Innocent III recognized it as a high school of theology. Its course was broad, adding history's first philosophical faculty, and the author credits Abelard's personality early in the twelfth century with making Paris the greatest university of the Middle Ages.
Chapter 25
What privilege did universities gain regarding students arrested by police, and what problems followed?
Universities were granted the privilege that the faculty governed the student body, and if a student was arrested, his case went to university authorities for trial and punishment. This grew from many students being citizens of other countries. The author notes it created a separate world for students and professors, that moral tone was often low, and that conflicts with citizens were frequent and bitter.
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What did the caliphs of Bagdad and Cordova do for education?
The successors of Mohammed were called caliphs, and the caliphs of Bagdad and Cordova rivaled each other in fostering learning. Schools were established in all large Moslem cities and many smaller towns. Scholars translated Aristotle and other Greek authors, taught mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, and grammar, originated chemistry, advanced algebra and trigonometry, measured the earth, and catalogued the stars. Students came from all parts of Europe, especially to Cordova.
Chapter 26
What were the five chief Moslem precepts?
The five chief Moslem precepts are: confession of the unity of God ('There is one God, and Mohammed is his prophet'); stated prayer; almsgiving; the fast of Ramadan, the ninth month of the Mohammedan year; and observance of the festival of Mecca, with every Moslem expected to make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his lifetime.
Chapter 26
How were Mohammedan elementary schools organized?
Elementary schools taught the Koran first, using it as a reading book. Poor children attended from age five to eight, then went to service; rich children stayed from five to fourteen or fifteen, after which boys traveled under a tutor until twenty. Any person could teach who chose to, as no authority fixed teacher qualifications. The schools began declining in the eleventh century.
Chapter 26
What does the chapter say about the decline of Mohammedan education?
The chapter states that Mohammedan schools began to decline in the eleventh century, and that at the present time but little attention is paid to education in any of the countries under the sway of Islam. Earlier, Spain reached the summit of Moslem education under King Hakem III (961-976), himself a man of learning with a private library of six hundred thousand volumes.
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What two new doctrines drove the Renaissance's intellectual emancipation?
The chapter names two: first, that man is a rational, volitional, self-conscious being born with capabilities and rights to enjoy whatever good the world offers; second, that there was goodness in man and his works even before the Christian era, so studying all writings that contributed to human progress is essential to culture. The first could be perverted into license, as in Italy, or used for good, as in Germany.
Chapter 27
Why did humanism produce different results in Italy and Germany?
The author argues Italy's outcome was pernicious—infidelity, immorality, pagan practices—owing to the evil influence of many Church leaders and the passionate nature of the Italian people. Germany, less directly exposed to those influences and possessing Teutonic moral stability, interpreted the same teaching as a call to self-development and God's glory. Heidelberg and Tuebingen became humanist centers led by Agricola, Reuchlin, and Erasmus.
Chapter 27
What were the Buerger or Artisan Schools and why did they arise?
Flourishing in the 13th and 14th centuries, these schools aimed to prepare men for practical, useful work and citizenship—contrary to humanistic influences. They grew from changed conditions, especially the tendency to live in cities and divide labor into crafts. Supported by secular authorities, often taught by priests in the mother tongue, they flourished in Germany, France, Italy, Denmark, and elsewhere, and furthered the idea of education at public expense.
Chapter 27
What eight influences of humanism does the chapter's summary list?
The summary credits humanism with: laying foundations for liberty of thought and conscience; reviving classic language study; utilizing printing to distribute ancient works; increasing university students and mass intelligence; making courses of study more practical; improving teacher preparation across schools; stimulating art, science, exploration, and invention; and preparing the way for the Reformation, which broadened and perfected the work.
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What did Petrarch contribute to humanism and education?
Petrarch was the real founder of humanism. He inspired zeal for classic lore, made the first collection of classic works, and brought monastic literary treasures to light. He advocated Greek as part of a liberal education despite not being a Greek scholar himself. He broke down scholastic methods and laid foundations of modern education: intellectual freedom, self-consciousness, and self-activity.
Chapter 28
What was Reuchlin's role in the Hebrew literature controversy?
John Pfefferkorn obtained an imperial order to confiscate and destroy Hebrew works opposing Christianity. Reuchlin, appealed to as the highest Hebrew authority, urged appointing two professors in each university to teach Hebrew instead of destroying the literature. Despite opposition from the Church and universities, Reuchlin was finally victorious, saving the literature and winning a great victory for humanism.
Chapter 28
What pedagogical teachings did Erasmus set forth?
Erasmus taught that the mother is the child's natural early educator; until age seven children should mostly play to develop the body, learning politeness without earnest work; after seven, Latin and Greek should be studied together for pronunciation and vocabulary; grammar comes first since language precedes other knowledge; teachers should be better trained and paid with suitable school buildings; religious education must not be neglected; and memory cultivation deserves great attention.
Chapter 28
How did Erasmus differ from Luther according to the chapter?
The chapter calls Erasmus the exact counterpart of Luther: Erasmus appealed to a limited few, the educated and higher classes, while Luther appealed to the masses and the lowly. Erasmus was a man of reflection, Luther a man of action. Though his sympathies were with the reformers, Erasmus never broke from the Church, believing reform could be wrought within it, and refused to take a decided stand.
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What two achievements make Luther the greatest educator of his time, per Seeley?
Seeley credits Luther with two achievements: he gave the German people a language through his translation of the Holy Scriptures, and he laid the foundation of the German common school system. The Bible translation's language became standard German, supplanting the many dialects, while his pedagogy became the basis of the German common school system of the present day.
Chapter 29
According to Compayre, what is the origin of the primary school?
Compayre, quoted by Seeley, argues that the primary school is the child of Protestantism, cradled in the Reformation. He contrasts this with the Catholic origin of primary instruction found in La Salle and the Institute of the Brethren of the Christian Schools, and with the lay and philosophical origin in the decrees of the French Revolution. He ascribes the honor of first organizing schools for the people to Luther and Comenius.
Chapter 29
What external conditions does Seeley say existed at the start of the sixteenth century?
Seeley describes the stage of political, religious, and educational activity shifting from the Mediterranean to north of the Alps, with civilization committed to the Teutonic race. He names Gutenberg's printing as the primary material agency, said to give the deathblow to medieval superstition, and the discovery of America as stimulating European enterprise. Education was at a low ebb, with few good teachers even in the Church.
Chapter 29
What did Luther's pedagogy require of parents, the State, and teachers?
Luther held parents responsible for educating their children, and the State duty-bound to require regular school attendance, holding parents accountable for non-attendance. Religion was the foundation of all instruction. Every child learned ordinary subjects plus practical duties—boys a trade, girls housework. Clergymen needed pedagogical training before a pastorate, teachers must be trained (including singing), and every school should have a library.
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What did Luther insist regarding authorities and children's schooling?
Luther insisted that authorities are bound to compel their subjects to send their children to school, urging compulsory education. He also urged parents to educate their children and appealed to magistrates to help the Church maintain schools. As a result, schools were organized in Nuremberg, Frankfort, Ilfeld, Strasburg, Hamburg, Bremen, Dantzic, and many other places.
Chapter 30
What was the scope of Sturm's course of study at Strasburg?
Sturm's course took boys at age six for a nine-year, later ten-year, program ending at sixteen, with a five-year course added later. It required ten years of Latin, six of Greek, plus rhetoric, logic, religion, and music, and used translating Latin into German and back. It ignored German, history, mathematics, and science.
Chapter 30
How did Trotzendorf organize school government at Goldberg?
Trotzendorf introduced student self-government: a senate of twelve students, a consul, and other officers responsible for governing the school. They formed a court with Trotzendorf as president; offenders were tried formally and sentenced according to guilt, with the master as final court of appeal. Other officers oversaw punctuality, table manners, and diligence. The scheme taught self-government and intelligent submission to law.
Chapter 30
What subjects did Neander favor teaching, contrary to his contemporaries?
Neander favored teaching geography, history, and the natural sciences, contrary to the practice of his contemporaries, placing him in advance of other educators. The chapter says in this he followed Melanchthon, who also believed science should be taught. Neander was also celebrated for his Greek and Latin textbooks and for outlining a boy's work for each year from six to eighteen.
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What was the stated purpose of the Society of Jesus according to its Papal Letters and Constitutions?
The Papal Letters and Constitutions assign as the special object: the progress of souls in a good life and knowledge of religion; the propagation of faith by public preaching, the Spiritual Exercises and works of charity, and particularly the instruction of youth and ignorant persons in the Christian religion. Schwickerath argues it is doubtful the founder had ever heard of the German Reformer.
Chapter 31
What was the Ratio Studiorum and when was it completed?
The Ratio Studiorum was the Jesuit course of study, completed in 1599 after a committee of twelve churchmen was appointed in 1581 and a commission of six representing different countries began preparing it three years later. With some modifications it remained the guide of Jesuit institutions. Quick says it set a perfectly attainable goal and defined the road to reach it.
Chapter 31
What did Jesuit schools emphasize, and what did Quick criticize about their aims?
Jesuit schools chiefly served higher education for boys not less than fourteen, with lower studia inferiora of five classes in humanities and higher studia superiora in philosophy and theology; instruction was free and poverty no bar to admission. Quick argues they did not aim at developing all faculties, only the receptive and reproductive ones.
Chapter 31
What educational contributions does the chapter credit to the Port Royalists?
The Port Royalists, or Jansenists, opposed the Jesuits and favored modern languages over the classic tongues. Their greatest contribution to education is the phonic method of spelling. They also stressed use of objects and development of sense perceptions in early childhood, an axiom stating instruction must reach the mind through hearing and also seeing, apparently the first instance of object teaching as a principle.
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What was Ascham's method for teaching languages in The Scholemaster?
Ascham's method was double translation: the master first teaches the child the meaning of a Latin passage, construes it into English, and parses it. The child then translates the lesson into English alone, and later back into Latin. The master compares the result with Cicero's original, praising what is good and showing why Tully's usage is better. Ascham credits this method with Queen Elizabeth's accomplished scholarship.
Chapter 32
What reforms did Montaigne advocate regarding punishment and schoolrooms?
Montaigne condemned the discipline of most colleges as veritable jails, where pupils are made vicious by being punished before they become so. He opposed flogging and pleaded for humane punishment, and he wanted schoolrooms strewn with leaves and flowers and decorated with scenes of joy, so children find happiness where they gain profit. The author notes this practice persisted long after Montaigne's time.
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What did the 1619 Duke of Weimar decree require of children?
The Duke of Weimar decreed that all children, girls as well as boys, be kept in school for at least six years, from age six to twelve. The chapter calls this the first efficient compulsory education law on record intended for all classes of children.
Chapter 33
What did Duke Ernst of Gotha's 1642 school regulation require?
Every child had to enter school at the beginning of the sixth year and remain until able to read the mother tongue, master Luther's catechism, and be well grounded in arithmetic, writing, and church songs. The regulation also marked out a course of study, graded schools, and outlined methods. It was adopted during the Thirty Years' War in a devastated territory.
Chapter 33
What was the greatest defect in the seventeenth-century German school system?
The chapter states the greatest defect was the lack of competent teachers. Discharged soldiers, worthless students, and degraded craftsmen who could read and write and knew a little music were employed as schoolmasters for many years. The only encouragement was that parents' duty to keep children in school was everywhere recognized.
Chapter 33
What six demands of the Reformers does Quick summarize?
Quick lists: study of things before or with words; knowledge communicated by appeal to the senses where possible; linguistic study beginning with the mother tongue; Latin and Greek only for boys likely to complete a learned education; physical education for health in all classes, not just gentlemanly accomplishment; and a new teaching method framed 'according to nature.'
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What did Bacon's inductive method, as described in the Novum Organum, emphasize?
The author presents Bacon's inductive method as a great educational discovery published in the Novum Organum in 1620. Its watchwords were experiment, investigate, and verify, which led to laboratories, experimenting stations, and the study of Nature herself. Macaulay summarized the Baconian doctrine as Utility and Progress, saying Bacon's philosophy began in observation and ended in arts.
Chapter 34
How does Macaulay's criticism of Bacon's originality get answered in the chapter?
Macaulay depreciates Bacon, noting the inductive method had been practiced since the beginning of the world and that Aristotle had already analyzed it. The chapter counters that these facts no more detract from Bacon's glory than the Norsemen's earlier discovery of America detracts from Columbus. The author argues Bacon's teachings resemble Montaigne's but were far more important and complete.
Chapter 34
What did Ratke propose, and why did his practical attempts fail?
Ratke promised to teach any language in six months and proposed uniform speech, government, and religion, selling his method as a secret. He tried it at Augsburg, Koethen, and Magdeburg, failing each time. The chapter says he failed more from want of tact in dealing with authorities, teachers, and pupils than from unsound theory, though much of his theory was worthless.
Chapter 34
What principles did Quick list as Ratke's pedagogy?
Quick summarizes Ratke's pedagogy in eight points: everything after the order and course of nature; one thing at a time; one thing again and again repeated; nothing learned by heart; uniformity in all things; knowledge of the thing itself before what refers to it; everything by experiment and analysis; and everything without coercion, by gentle means rather than the rod. Others developed these into modern pedagogy.
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What did Milton say is the end of learning?
Milton wrote that the end of learning is "to repair the ruines of our first Parents by regaining to know God aright," and from that knowledge to love, imitate, and become like God, possessing true virtue united with faith. The author notes this cumbersome definition shows how fully Milton was possessed of the Puritan spirit that then controlled England and magnified religious zeal.
Chapter 35
What were the main features of Milton's scheme of education?
Milton proposed a spacious house with large grounds for about 130 students aged twelve to twenty-one, who would receive complete secondary and university education in one school. The course covered Latin, arithmetic, geometry, religion, Greek, geography, natural philosophy, trigonometry, architecture, engineering, navigation, anatomy, medicine, ethics, politics, and law, plus daily sword, wrestling, riding, and military exercises. At about twenty-three the young man would travel abroad.
Chapter 35
What did Locke prescribe for physical education, and what aphorism sums up his theory?
Locke prescribed plenty of outdoor exercise, loose clothing not too warm, plain food with little meat or sugar, proper hours of sleep, beds not too soft, early retiring and rising, and cold baths, to harden the body against disease. The author notes modern science rejects some of these but most are sound. The aphorism summing up his theory is "A sound mind in a sound body."
Chapter 35
What did Locke want for the laboring classes, and did he support universal public education?
Locke urged establishing "working schools" for children of the laboring classes, intended not for intellectual training but for forming steady habits and preparing for industrial pursuits; the author calls this the first appearance of a manual training school project in history. However, Locke did not believe in universal education or the public school; his formal scheme provided only for gentlemen, following the path of Alfred the Great.
Chapter 35

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What does Paulsen say about the name 'Ratich'?
Paulsen calls 'Ratich' "an abominable mutilation of Latinization." The chapter notes that the reformer also appears as Rateke, Radtke, and Ratich, and cites Paulsen's judgment on the last form.
Chapter 36
Which works does the chapter recommend for studying Comenius?
The chapter calls especial attention to Laurie's "Life of Comenius" and Monroe's "Comenius," and points to the Appendix of Bardeen's edition of Laurie's "Comenius" for other works. It also cites Laurie's "Life and Works of Comenius" and Raumer's "Geschichte der Paedagogik."
Chapter 36
Whose judgment of Bacon is milder than Macaulay's?
The chapter says that for a full description of Bacon's trial one should consult Macaulay's "Essays," and also Bacon's biographer Montagu, whose judgment of Bacon is much milder than Macaulay's.
Chapter 36
Which sources does the chapter cite on Locke?
The chapter directs readers to Fowler's "Locke," and also to Quick, Compayré, and Williams. Elsewhere it cites Quick's "Educational Reformers," Compayré's "History of Pedagogy," and Brother Azarias's "Essays Educational."
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What was Francke's role in training teachers?
Because funds were scarce, Francke relied on theological students to teach. He established a pedagogical class (Pedagogium); after two years' membership a student could teach if he pledged three years to teaching in the schools. The class met weekly for criticism and discussion under the school inspector, and inspectors met Francke each evening. The author calls this crude training the inception of the normal school.
Chapter 37
What does the chapter say about Francke and the Real-school?
Many credit Francke with founding the German Real-school, but the best authorities give that credit to Professor Erhard Weigel of Jena. Whether or not the idea originated with Francke, he accepted the need for such a change and founded schools for higher learning where Greek and Latin were not required and more attention went to modern languages and science.
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What four political and social changes does the chapter say influenced education?
The chapter lists four: the abolition of human slavery (including Russia's 1861 decree freeing forty million serfs), the extension of political rights, the recognition of science as an instrument of civilization, and the attainment of religious freedom. The author argues these removed the greatest obstacles to educational progress and opened possibilities of universal brotherhood, peace, and education.
Chapter 38
How does the chapter describe the spread of self-government in the eighteenth century?
The author states that at the start of the eighteenth century scarcely any nation acknowledged the individual's right to a part in government or personal freedom. Switzerland had long maintained freedom, and England secured the rights of man through bloodshed, only in the latter half of the seventeenth century under Cromwell. England did not concede self-government to her colonies until the American Revolution.
Chapter 38
What does the chapter claim about religious freedom in the last two centuries?
The author argues that struggles of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries produced no decided victory, and complete religious freedom was gained only in the last two centuries. Men are no longer bound to accept ecclesiastical decrees without question; each may weigh, consider, and decide for himself, with civil law protecting, civil society sustaining, and public opinion justifying personal religious liberty.
Chapter 38
What role does the chapter assign to science in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries?
The author argues science has been recognized as a powerful instrument of civilization. Scientific discoveries brought material wealth, stimulated invention, fostered the spirit of investigation, and abandoned old theories and superstitions, establishing truth on their ruins. The chapter claims more was done by science in these two centuries than in all previous world history, and that scientific investigation became the greatest educational principle of modern times.
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What was Rousseau's first principle of education in Emile?
Rousseau's first principle is that everything is good as it comes from the hands of the Author of nature, while everything degenerates in the hands of man. Education therefore has only to prevent evil from entering and let nature continue its work. It is thus a negative as well as a natural process. Vogel is cited as showing the fallacy of this principle.
Chapter 39
How does Rousseau divide Emile's education into periods?
Rousseau divides education into stages: physical education from birth; the period from speech to age twelve, devoted to sense training and freedom with no books or religious training; intellectual development from twelve to fifteen, including a trade and only Robinson Crusoe as reading; and adolescence from fifteen, when moral and religious sentiments are cultivated.
Chapter 39
What did Rousseau prescribe for Emile's religious training?
Rousseau holds that Emile at fifteen does not know he has a soul, and perhaps even the eighteenth year is too early to learn it. Religion, furnishing a check on the passions, should be taught at eighteen, without instruction in any sect's doctrines, letting the boy choose the belief most appealing to reason. The chapter says modern investigation has proven this utterly fallacious.
Chapter 39
How does Rousseau describe the education of women?
Rousseau discusses women's education only in relation to men. He says the whole education of women should be relative to men: to please them, be useful to them, be honored and loved by them, educate the young, care for the older, advise and console them. The sole instruction woman needs is in household duties and adding to her husband's happiness. The chapter calls this the weakest part of his theory.
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What was the Philanthropin and who founded it?
The Philanthropin was an experimental school established at Dessau by Prince Leopold of Dessau, who was attracted to Basedow through Goethe. Opened in 1774, it was intended as a model institute for preparing teachers in the new education and for educating youth according to the laws of nature and humanity, with instruction founded entirely on sense-perception. It closed in 1793, less than twenty years after opening.
Chapter 40
Why did the Philanthropin fail, according to the chapter?
The chapter gives several causes: it was purely secular, and parents suspicious of a non-sectarian school sent few pupils; Basedow demanded too many subjects, which he later admitted exaggerated; he indiscriminately condemned prior practices and antagonized teachers; and he was unfit as director—capricious, visionary, lacking self-command, and suspicious of his staff. He retired after four years.
Chapter 40
What were Jacotot's famous paradoxes and his method?
Jacotot is best known for the paradoxes 'Everything is in Everything' and 'All men have equal intelligence.' His method, which the chapter says proved his greatest contribution, involved selecting fundamental examples or types, having pupils memorize them, repeat daily, amplify, and derive rules until mastery is complete—as with a page of Caesar in Latin or the Pythagorean theorem in mathematics.
Chapter 40
How does the chapter assess Basedow's significance and influence?
The chapter says Basedow's pedagogical principles contained little that was original, drawing on Comenius, Locke, and Rousseau, but he tried to put progressive theories into practice. His Dessau experiment was crude, yet it bore fruit in modern schools: better buildings and apparatus, trained teachers, milder discipline, improved nature study, and a broader philanthropic view of duty to fellow-man. Kant praised the institute's freedom for teachers.
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What did Pestalozzi want to be when the Swiss government offered him any office?
When the Directors of the Government of Switzerland sought to win Pestalozzi to their cause by offering him a political office, he replied, "I want to be a schoolmaster." He was then sent to Stanz, the only village left in the canton of Nidwalden, to establish a school, beginning his work there at age fifty-three.
Chapter 41
Why did Pestalozzi abandon law as a career?
Pestalozzi studied law to become champion of the peasantry, who were cheated and imposed upon because of their ignorance. Kruesi thinks the study produced negative results by showing him the insufficiency of human legislation to do away with abuses unless supported by principles of charity and justice, so he gave up the enterprise.
Chapter 41
What was the Neuhof industrial school and why did it close in 1780?
In 1775 Pestalozzi opened at Neuhof an "industrial school for the poor," which Kruesi calls the first school of its kind and the mother of hundreds now existing. He fed, clothed, housed, and taught fifty children without compensation in return for field and spinning work. The children were lazy and dishonest, parents demanded pay, and he closed it in 1780 in debt.
Chapter 41
What does the chapter say about Pestalozzi's marriage proposal letter?
Pestalozzi's letter to Anna Schulthess is remarkable for its frankness, confession of his own weaknesses, and correct estimate of himself. He confessed improvidence, want of caution, and want of presence of mind, and said duties to his fatherland would come before those to his wife. Anna consented anyway; they married in his twenty-fourth year and were wed over fifty years.
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What did Froebel say he discovered while studying boys' play at Yverdon?
Froebel studied the boys' play and the whole series of open-air games at Pestalozzi's institute at Yverdon, and learned to recognize their power to awaken and strengthen the intelligence and soul as well as the body. The chapter presents this as the first suggestion of the kindergarten, the institution that made Froebel famous.
Chapter 42
How did Froebel arrive at the name 'Kindergarten'?
While walking with Middendorff and Barof toward Blankenburg over the Steiger Pass, Froebel repeatedly wished he could think of a name for his newest institution. Suddenly he stood still, his eyes brightened, and he shouted to the mountain, 'Eureka! Kindergarten shall the institute be called!' The chapter calls the name an inspiration.
Chapter 42
How did the Prussian government treat Froebel's kindergartens?
Prussia regarded Keilhau with suspicion and sent a commission whose report was highly complimentary, yet persecution continued. In 1851 the government prohibited kindergartens as part of a supposed Froebelian socialistic system teaching atheism, a decree in force until 1860. The chapter adds that Prussia still did not treat the kindergarten as an educational institution.
Chapter 42
According to the chapter, what was Froebel's greatest discovery?
The chapter states that Froebel's greatest discovery was that education comes only through self-activity, though he never clearly formulated the discovery. It also notes that, like Pestalozzi, Froebel was wholly incapable of financial management, and that his institution at Blankenburg had to be closed.
Chapter 42

CHAPTER XL3 cards

What claim does the chapter make about Herbart's contribution to pedagogy as a science?
The chapter credits Herbart as the first to elevate pedagogy to the dignity of a science. Professor Rein is quoted saying Herbart rendered an undisputed service by raising pedagogics to the rank of a science, creating a basis for educational theory that furnishes a safe starting point for future development.
Chapter 43
What was Herbart's only experience teaching children, and where did it occur?
After three years at Jena, Herbart became a tutor (Hauslehrer) in the family of Herr von Steiger, governor of Interlaken, in Switzerland. This was his only experience teaching children, involving three children aged eight, twelve, and fourteen. De Garmo notes that Herbart often drew on this experience in later writings.
Chapter 43
Which two works does the chapter call Herbart's greatest in pedagogy, and when did they appear?
The chapter names his 'A B C der Anschauung' ('The A B C of Observation') and his 'Allgemeine Paedagogik' ('General Pedagogy') as his greatest works in pedagogy. Both appeared while Herbart was still at Goettingen, before his twenty-four years at Koenigsberg and his 1833 return to Goettingen.
Chapter 43

CHAPTER XLI4 cards

What did Horace Mann give up to become secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Education?
Mann accepted the secretary position at a salary of one thousand dollars a year. To do so he gave up a lucrative law practice, fine prospects of political preferment, probable fortune, and professional fame. He entered an educational campaign the chapter calls full of discouragement, colossal in undertaking, and sure to arouse bitterest animosities.
Chapter 44
What improvements does Martin's summary credit to Mann's twelve years of labor?
Martin's statistics show school appropriations doubled, over two million dollars spent on better schoolhouses, men's teaching wages up sixty-two percent and women's fifty-one percent, women teachers up fifty-four percent, one month added to the school year, private-to-public expenditure ratio falling from seventy-five to thirty-six percent, compulsory committee compensation, and three normal schools established.
Chapter 44
What was Mann's Seventh Annual Report, and what did Winship say it accomplished?
It was Mann's account of European schools after he visited and studied them, and the chapter calls it the best known and most important of his written documents. Winship says Mann had made a crisis and the report was immortal: opposition to normal schools was never more to be heard, and oral instruction, the word method, and less corporal punishment were certain to come to Boston schools.
Chapter 44
How does the chapter describe Mann's view of the common school?
The author presents Mann as believing the common school is the greatest discovery ever made by man, supereminent in universality, since it can receive every child, and in timeliness, since its early counsel makes security antedate danger. In his first Annual Report he says its object is to give every child a free, straight, solid pathway from infant ignorance to knowledge of the primary duties of man.
Chapter 44

CHAPTER XLII3 cards

How is the Prussian school system administered at the provincial and district levels?
Each of Prussia's thirteen royal provinces has a school board presided over by the royal president, with royal counselors and pedagogically trained men; it handles higher schools, school finances, textbooks, and normal-school appointments. The thirty-six governments have similar boards focused on common schools. The district's key officer is the school inspector, always pedagogically trained, appointed for life, who devotes full time to inspection.
Chapter 45
What is the author's criticism of the German common school's structure?
The author argues the common school's greatest weakness is that it is not followed by a secondary school, perpetuating the class system and preventing a child from rising above his station. The only route to higher education for lower-class children is the normal school, limited to a few able pupils. A boy headed for a profession must enter a secondary school by age nine or ten.
Chapter 45
What are the three most important features of the German school system, per the author?
The author identifies three: only professionally trained teachers can be employed; such teachers are appointed to permanent positions; and attendance of every child during the entire school year is compulsory. He calls the Prussian system the most efficient in the world for educating the masses, noting over 99.5 percent of army recruits in 1893 could read and write, and that many countries adopted Prussian lessons.
Chapter 45

CHAPTER XLIII4 cards

How is French education administration divided geographically?
France is divided into seventeen academies for school administration, which do not coincide with political divisions. These are subdivided into ninety departements, each with an educational council overseeing elementary schools and a full-time school inspector. Departements are further divided into arrondissements and cantons, the latter having school boards with direct control of individual schools.
Chapter 46
What were France's compulsory attendance rules and results by 1895?
Attendance was compulsory for children aged six to thirteen every school day, though parents could choose instruction outside the public school if it met State approval. The State asserted the child's right to education regardless of parental attitude. Compulsory education dated only from 1882, yet by 1895, 91 percent of school-age children attended regularly.
Chapter 46
What did France's three reform milestones of 1881, 1882, and 1886 establish?
The author identifies three signs of educational advance: free schools established in 1881; compulsory education and secularization of schools in 1882; and restriction of teaching to lay persons in 1886, which previously had allowed members of religious orders to teach in public schools. A note adds that in 1902 the government further restricted teaching by religious orders.
Chapter 46
What requirements and benefits did French normal schools offer teacher candidates?
Candidates had to be at least sixteen, of good moral character, and pledge to teach at least ten years. The elementary course lasted three years; graduates were appointed provisionally until passing a final examination within ten years, then became permanent and removable only for immorality. Tuition, board, room, and books were free, and the State gave graduates preference in appointments.
Chapter 46

CHAPTER XLIV4 cards

What did the English law of 1870 establish regarding school provision?
The law obligated the government to secure school provision for all children ages 5 to 14, created local agencies (managers or elected boards) to carry this out, provided treasury grants distributed by examination and inspection results, created a central agency, admitted private and public elementary schools to grants on equal terms, and required board schools to be non-sectarian with a conscience clause protecting children from enforced sectarian instruction.
Chapter 47
How did the law of 1903 change local school management in England?
The law of 1903 made the council of every county and county borough a local education authority controlling secular instruction in all elementary schools in its district, taking over duties of former school boards and attendance committees. It also allowed these authorities to establish high schools, extending public education to secondary as well as elementary schools.
Chapter 47
What was the pupil teacher scheme in England?
Children about fifteen were apprenticed to a school to assist in teaching, receiving instruction and a small stipend in return. At eighteen or nineteen they entered a teachers' college for a two-year course, or took an examination for the teachers' certificate to become assistant teachers. The chapter notes pupil teachers declined 15 percent from 1876 to 1893 while graduate teachers rose, suggesting England demanded better-prepared teachers.
Chapter 47
How were English elementary schools funded around 1902?
Elementary school expenses were met by parliamentary grants, local taxes, and endowments, with parliamentary grants covering about 62 percent of the total. Denominational and undenominational schools formerly shared government grants alike, but denominational schools had to raise the balance through private subscriptions and school pence, while board schools could levy a local tax. The law of 1903 let both share in the local tax.
Chapter 47

CHAPTER XLV (part 1)3 cards

What is the function of the National Bureau of Education established in 1867?
Congress established it in 1867 to collect statistics and facts on education in the states and territories, and to diffuse information about school organization, management, and teaching methods. The chapter notes it aids states in maintaining efficient school systems and issues an annual report, which the author calls the finest issued by any nation.
Chapter 48
How does the author compare the district system with the township system?
The author argues the district system has outlived its usefulness: it maintains too many schools for too few pupils, often elects a trustee of limited education who runs schools as cheaply as possible, and limits the course to elementary work. The township system, by contrast, draws from better material, can support a central high school open to all township children, and may employ a special superintendent.
Chapter 48
What does the chapter say about compulsory education laws and attendance?
The author reports that 71.54 percent of school-age children are enrolled, with average attendance about 69 percent of enrollment—low compared with Germany, France, and England. Compulsory laws exist in most states but are generally a dead letter due to their own weakness and public indifference. The author argues effective compulsion must cover the whole school year and carry sufficient penalties.
Chapter 48

CHAPTER XLV (part 2)4 cards

What does the chapter's bibliography say about the topics mentioned in the book?
The chapter explains that the listed works cover some phase of the many topics considered in the book. Most of them have already been mentioned in abbreviated form, either in the literature at the beginning of each chapter or in the footnotes. The bibliography is here given with their full titles.
Chapter 49
How does the bibliography organize entries by author?
Entries are arranged alphabetically by the author's surname, from Adams and Allen through Yonge and Zoubek. Each entry gives the author's name followed by one or more book titles, sometimes noting translators or editors, such as Arber's edition of Ascham's The Scholemaster or Payne's translation of Compayré.
Chapter 49
What details does the bibliography sometimes include beyond author and title?
Some entries add translators or editors, as with Ascham's The Scholemaster edited by E. Arber, Compayré's History of Pedagogy translated by W. H. Payne, and Froebel's The Education of Man translated by W. N. Hailmann. Others note volume counts, such as Curtius's History of Greece in five volumes.
Chapter 49
What does the index reveal about Alcuin's role in education?
The index lists Alcuin of England as a Benedictine teacher and as teacher of Charlemagne. It also lists Abelard as a Benedictine teacher and leader of scholasticism at the University of Paris. These entries point readers to the book's earlier discussion of these figures.
Chapter 49

CHAPTER XLV (part 3)4 cards

What was Cicero's role and contribution to Roman education?
Cicero was a Roman consul, called Father of his Country, whose life and education are treated in the chapter. His pedagogy and services to education are noted, and his works were studied in monastic education. His Philippics are mentioned among his writings.
Chapter 50
How did the Church Fathers view pagan literature in education?
The chapter states the Church Fathers were opposed to pagan literature, and Tertullian is noted as excluding classic literature. This opposition is listed alongside their direct educational movements. The author presents this as a stance of the Church Fathers within the history of educational thought.
Chapter 50
What educational influence did the Crusades have according to the chapter?
The chapter lists the Crusades' influence on education and their results, and notes that the Crusades broke the power of feudalism. It also cites Cramer on the crusades. The author treats the Crusades as a factor in educational change during the period.
Chapter 50
What was Comenius's major educational work and its influence?
Comenius wrote the Didactica Magna, also called the Great Didactic, which organized the school system. He was a member of the Moravian Brethren, was banished, and settled in Poland. The chapter notes Bacon's influence on him, honors bestowed on him, and Pestalozzi's application of his principles.
Chapter 50

CHAPTER XLV (part 5)4 cards

What was the chief end of education in Persia, according to the chapter?
The chapter states that preparation for war was the chief end of education in Persia. Persian religion was founded by Zoroaster, whose dualistic philosophy is noted. The chapter also records that the status and education of women in Persia are treated in the index entries, and that Persian schools taught writing.
Chapter 52
What did Voltaire think of Jesuit education and of Fenelon?
According to the index entries, Voltaire condemned Jesuit education and also wrote on Fenelon. These are listed as Voltaire's positions in the chapter's index of persons. The chapter does not elaborate the reasoning behind either judgment, so the entries record his stance without presenting it as the author's own view.
Chapter 52
What does the chapter record about Rousseau's wife and Madame de Warens?
The chapter's index lists Therese le Vasseur as the wife of Rousseau, and Madame de Warens as the woman who befriended Rousseau. It also notes Vogel on errors of Emile and Rousseau's ideas of women's education. These entries identify the persons and topics without narrating the relationships in detail.
Chapter 52
Which universities does the chapter's index associate with Vienna and Wuerzburg?
The index records that a university was established at Vienna, with entries at pages 124 and 141, and lists the University of Wuerzburg at page 141. Upsala is also listed as a university at page 141. These entries show the chapter's attention to the founding and location of European universities.
Chapter 52

M.4 cards

How are Hindu school lessons conducted, according to Dean's description?
The teacher reads a sentence in a singsong voice and the boys shout it back, swaying to and fro, until sentence after sentence is memorized. The teacher never explains, and neither teacher nor pupil asks why. The school is often an open shed with no furniture but the teacher's low desk, boys sitting cross-legged on the earthen floor.
Chapter 53
What are the seven criticisms of Hindu education listed in the chapter?
The chapter lists: it is not universal; it is based on castes and promotes the baneful caste system; it over-cultivates memory; it has no philosophy of education and is non-progressive; it does not honor woman and excludes her; it produces a dreamy, self-satisfied, indolent, selfish, non-progressive people; and it makes people self-reflective, which the author credits for their philosophical and mathematical discoveries.
Chapter 53
What did Buddha teach, and how does the chapter qualify his educational influence?
Buddha lived in the first half of the sixth century B.C. and sought to overthrow Brahmanism, teaching that all men are brothers and should show friendship, kindness, pity, and love. The author says his religion approaches Christianity more than any other oriental faith and his influence uplifted the race, though it cannot be classed as technically educational. Rhys Davids says Buddha did not abolish castes, as none existed at his time.
Chapter 53
What subjects did Brahman schools teach, and which took precedence?
Brahman schools pursued grammar, mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, medicine, law, literature, and religion. Because Hindu religion is based on philosophy, philosophy took precedence over all other studies. The Brahmans were the only educated class, though warriors and the farmer caste could attend to learn studies pertaining to their calling. Many still spoke Sanskrit, the classic language.
Chapter 53

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All questions and answers

According to the preface, what practical uses does studying educational history serve for teachers?

What three features make up the book's plan of references?

What notebook outline does the author suggest for classes using this book?

On what general plan is the book based, and which chapters may teachers omit?

According to the chapter, why should the study of education begin with its history?

How does Karl Schmidt describe the stages of humanity's development?

Why does the chapter say environment and geography must be studied to understand a people's education?

What distinction does the chapter draw between Education and Schooling?

What was the main criticism of Chinese education regarding mental faculties?

How were Chinese civil service examinations structured and who could take them?

What was the role of women and girls in Chinese home education?

What teaching method did Confucius use with his pupils?

What are the four great castes in India and their roles?

What is the Hindu idea of education according to the chapter?

How is elementary instruction conducted in India?

What restrictions does the chapter describe for women in India?

How was a Persian boy's education divided after age seven?

What were the four criticisms of Persian education given in the chapter?

What was Zoroaster's dualistic philosophy and its judgment after death?

What was the role of the home in early Persian childhood?

How did the Jews' education and government come to be called theocratic?

What did the rabbis require of every community in A.D. 64?

How were teachers regarded and selected in Jewish education?

What subjects and methods characterized the Jewish elementary school?

What were Egypt's three main castes, and what did the first caste control?

What did Egyptian education teach the lower castes, and who were the only teachers?

What institutions of higher learning existed in ancient Egypt, and what was Alexandria known for?

What was the Olympic Games' original purpose and how often were they held?

What events were included in the Olympian games over time?

What effects did the Olympian games have on the Greek people?

Why did Greece develop two different standards of education?

How did Athenian education differ from Spartan in its central ideals?

What was a pedagogue in Athenian education and what were his duties?

What did the Sophists contribute, and what criticism does the chapter make of them?

What control did the Athenian State exercise over schools?

What was the Socratic Method, and what did Socrates contribute to education?

How did Plato divide people and structure education in his Republic?

What was Aristotle's pedagogy regarding the stages of education?

What did Plato mean by saying the good soul improves the body?

What were the three classes of Sparta's inhabitants and their approximate numbers?

How did Sparta educate boys from age six or seven, and what was the aim?

What does the chapter say about weak or deformed Spartan children?

What was Lycurgus's role and what customs did his laws introduce?

Who was chiefly responsible for a Roman child's early education, and what did she teach?

How did elementary schools under the literators operate in Rome?

What happened at sixteen, and what vocations could a Roman boy choose?

What criticisms does the author level at Roman education?

What did Cicero teach about corporal punishment of children?

How did Quintilian's school and career gain official standing in Rome?

What did Quintilian argue about public schools versus other education?

Why does the chapter say Seneca failed as Nero's tutor?

According to the chapter, what is the central pedagogic truth of Christ's teaching?

How does the chapter describe the position of women under Christian teaching?

What obstacles slowed the early Christians' efforts to educate their children?

Why did early Christians avoid pagan schools and literature?

What six characteristics does Seeley identify in Christ's teaching method?

How does Seeley say Christ adapted his teaching to different hearers?

What does Seeley say Christ's sympathy led him to do?

Who were the foremost leaders in education during the first Christian period?

Why did the Church control education during this period?

What services did monasteries render to education?

How did the crusades and Teutonic peoples affect education?

What were catechumen schools and whom did they originally serve?

What educational principles did Chrysostom set forth?

How did Basil the Great's pedagogy handle punishment and teaching authority?

Why was the catechetical school at Alexandria founded and what did it teach?

When and how did the conflict between pagan and Christian schools end?

What did Tertullian believe about pagan philosophy and literature?

What are Augustine's five pedagogical principles?

How does the chapter assess the Church's role in medieval education?

What two principles made the Benedictine order the most successful monastic order?

What subjects made up the trivium and the quadrivium?

How did the monasteries preserve classic literature despite Church opposition?

What was the curriculum of the seven liberal arts, and what did it omit?

What was the stated object of scholasticism, and when did it flourish?

Who does the chapter name as leaders of the scholastic movement?

How did Aquinas and Duns Scotus differ, and why did this matter?

What benefits does the chapter's summary credit to scholasticism?

What were Charlemagne's educational deficiencies and how did he address them?