Donald A. (Donald Alexander) Mackenzie · Public domain edition · 170 cards · 45 chapters
Donald Mackenzie argues that Babylonian and Assyrian myths grew from Sumerian and Akkadian roots, with racial origins debated through language and archaeology. The deck covers the region's geography and seasons, Ea and his Indian parallel, city gods, and early ideas about life, tears, and the liver.
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Chapter 1 · Question
How did the Sumerians and Akkadians differ in appearance and language?
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Chapter 1 · Answer
The Akkadians were a Semitic-speaking people depicted with abundant locks, long full beards, prominent noses, full lips, and long flounced robes. The Sumerians, the oldest known inhabitants of Babylonia, had clean-shaven faces and scalps, noses of Egyptian and Grecian rather than Semitic type, wore short pleated kilts with bare upper bodies, and spoke a non-Semitic language.
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CHAPTER I.4 cards
How did the Sumerians and Akkadians differ in appearance and language?
The Akkadians were a Semitic-speaking people depicted with abundant locks, long full beards, prominent noses, full lips, and long flounced robes. The Sumerians, the oldest known inhabitants of Babylonia, had clean-shaven faces and scalps, noses of Egyptian and Grecian rather than Semitic type, wore short pleated kilts with bare upper bodies, and spoke a non-Semitic language.
Chapter 1
What does the chapter say about language as evidence of racial origins?
The author argues that languages afford no sure indication of racial origins or affinities. He notes that Sumerian and Chinese are both agglutinative, but so are the languages of Turks, Magyars, Finns, and Basques, who differ widely in skull shape and appearance. He therefore treats the linguistic argument for a Mongolian origin as inconclusive.
Chapter 1
What is Professor Elliot Smith's view on the Sumerians' origin?
Elliot Smith is frankly of the opinion that the Sumerians were congeners of the pre-Dynastic Egyptians of the Mediterranean or Brown race, whose eastern branch reaches India and western branch the British Isles and Ireland. He also argues that negative evidence — the absence of early remains — cannot be assigned as positive evidence for an immigration.
Chapter 1
What did excavations at Anau in Russian Turkestan reveal?
The Pumpelly expedition found abundant traces of an archaic, forgotten civilization reaching back to the Late Stone Age, including pottery with geometric designs resembling Neolithic specimens from Susa, Boghaz Köi, the Black Sea region, and the Balkans. Copper Age clay votive statuettes resembled Sumerian religious figurines, but the chapter says these show trade relations, not racial connection, and no inscriptions were found.
Chapter 1
CHAPTER II.4 cards
How did Babylonian engineers manage the Tigris and Euphrates for farming?
The chapter says skilled engineers solved water distribution by irrigating sun-parched areas and preventing excessive flooding. They built a network of canals, some following ancient river beds, to restrain the rivers' destructive tendencies and develop their fertilizing potential. Where canals sat above the feeding streams, water was raised with shaddufs—buckets or skin bags roped to a weighted beam and swung up by workmen.
Chapter 2
What two seasons does Babylonia have, and when does each occur?
Babylonia has a rainy season and a dry season. Rain falls from November until March, and in spring the plain is carpeted with green verdure and wild flowers. Then drought follows: the sun burns up vegetation and the land turns brown and yellow desert, with occasional sandstorms. Meanwhile the rivers swell from melting mountain snows—the Tigris rises in March and peaks in May, while the Euphrates rises a fortnight later and stays in flood longer.
Chapter 2
Who was Ea, and with whom is he identified?
Ea was a distinctive Sumerian god supreme at Eridu, the ancient sea-deserted port. The chapter identifies him with the Oannes of Berosus, described as a creature endowed with reason, with a fish's body, feet below like a man's, and a fish's tail. The author suggests Ea may originally have been a sacred fish, noting that the Indian creative gods Brahma and Vishnu also had fish forms.
Chapter 2
How does Ea resemble the Indian fish that aids Manu?
The chapter says Ea befriended the Babylonian Noah, Pir-napishtim, advising him to build a vessel before the approaching Deluge. In the Indian legend, Manu protects a small fish, moving it from jar to tank to Ganges to sea; the fish then warns him of the flood and pilots his ship to a mountain top. The author argues the Indian myth is probably of Babylonian origin, with the growing fish suggesting the river rising in flood.
Chapter 2
CHAPTER III.4 cards
Why did different Babylonian cities exalt different supreme gods?
The chapter argues that mythological systems were strongly influenced by city politics and local needs. A city's chief god reflected its food supply, its wars, or its law and order, and a god's fame depended on the achievements of his worshippers and the progress of their city. Ea was supreme at Eridu, Nannar the moon god at Ur, and Shamash the sun god at Larsa and Sippar.
Chapter 3
Which element did the worshippers of Ea believe contained the essence of life?
One section of the people, represented by the worshippers of Ea, believed the essence of life was contained in water. Ea was the source of the 'water of life', fertilizing parched wastes through rivers and canals and giving man the 'food of life'. Offerings of water and food were made to the dead so their ghosts would be nourished and not trouble the living.
Chapter 3
What creative power did the chapter attribute to tears and saliva?
The chapter states that body moisture of gods and demons had vitalizing properties. Prajapati's tears became air and sky; Ra's tears fell as shining rays; Egyptian deities wept creative tears, and evil gods' tears produced poisonous plants and baneful animals. Saliva, like tears, was creative and curative, expelled demons, and brought good luck, as in Thoth spitting to restore the Eye of Ra.
Chapter 3
What did the chapter say about the liver and the life principle?
In Babylonia the river was regarded as the source of the life blood and the seat of the soul. The chapter suggests this was based on the fact that the human liver contains about a sixth of the blood in the body, the largest proportion required by any single organ. Jeremiah's 'my liver is poured upon the earth' is cited as meaning her life is spent with grief.
Chapter 3
CHAPTER IV.4 cards
How did Babylonians explain natural phenomena and disease according to the chapter?
The chapter states that Babylonians attributed all natural phenomena to the operations of spirits or gods, since they knew nothing of the composition of water or air, the cause of thunder and lightning, or bacterial action in soils. In believing certain demons caused certain diseases, the author argues they may be said to have anticipated the germ theory, achieving distinct progress.
Chapter 4
What was the Babylonian dragon Tiamat, and why did she attack her offspring?
Tiamat was the female dragon personifying the primordial deep, paired with Apsu. The elder deities Apsu and Tiamat resolved to destroy their offspring because the younger gods began to set the Universe in order. Tiamat, more powerful than her husband, summoned the gods of evil and created a brood of monsters to bring universal confusion until she was destroyed.
Chapter 4
What did Babylonians believe happened when an idol was carried off by invaders?
The chapter states that when an idol was carried away from a city by an invading army, it was believed that the god himself had been taken prisoner and was therefore unable any longer to help his people. Babylonian temples were houses of the gods in the literal sense, with gods thought to dwell in the graven images.
Chapter 4
How does the chapter describe Lilith and the spirits resembling elves and fairies?
The chapter says some supernatural beings resemble elves and fairies and the Indian Rakshasas, occasionally appearing in comely human guise and at other times vaguely monstrous. The best known of this class is Lilith, who, according to Hebrew tradition, was Adam's first wife. The text cuts off mid-sentence at that point.
Chapter 4
CHAPTER V. (part 1)2 cards
How did Tammuz's death differ across versions of the myth?
According to one account, his death was caused by the fickle Ishtar, as Gilgamesh upbraided her for laying affliction on Tammuz every year. But Sumerian hymns suggest another form of the legend where someone else slew the young god, possibly a Set-like demon such as Nin-shach, conjectured to mean "lord of the wild boar." The author notes there is no direct evidence linking Tammuz's slayer to the boar that killed Adonis.
Chapter 5
What theory does the author give for the common origin of Tammuz, Attis, Osiris, Adonis, and Diarmid?
The author argues it is probable that Tammuz, Attis, Osiris, and the deities represented by Adonis and Diarmid were all developed from an archaic god of fertility and vegetation. This myth was as ancient as agriculture and existed even in the "Hunting Period." Traces of the Tammuz-Osiris story appear across the Mediterranean or Brown race area from Sumeria to the British Isles, apparently tied to tree, water, and animal worship.
Chapter 5
CHAPTER V. (part 2)4 cards
What does the Sumerian name Dumu-zi (Tammuz) mean, and what does Pinches suggest about his flocks?
The Sumerian name of Tammuz is Dumu-zi, or in its rare fullest form Dumuzida, meaning "true or faithful son"; Mackenzie notes some legend probably attaches to this but is at present unknown. Professor Pinches suggests Tammuz's flocks recall the flocks of the Greek sun god Helios: clouds illuminated by the sun, likened to sheep, one early Sumerian expression for "fleece" being "sheep of the sky".
Chapter 6
In "The Descent of Ishtar", what happens to Ishtar at each of the seven gates of Hades?
As Ishtar enters through the various gates she is stripped of her ornaments and clothing: at the first gate her crown, the second her ear-rings, the third her necklace of precious stones, the fourth the ornaments of her breast, the fifth her gemmed waist-girdle, the sixth the bracelets of her hands and feet, and the seventh the covering robe of her body. At each gate she asks why, and the porter answers, "Such is the command of Allatu."
Chapter 6
How is Ishtar rescued from Hades, and what ransom does Allatu demand?
Ea, god of the deep, created a man lion named Nadushu-namir to rescue Ishtar, giving him power to pass through the seven gates. Allatu cursed him but was compelled to obey the high gods, ordering Namtar to give Ishtar the waters of life. Ishtar is told that since she paid no ransom to Allatu she must turn back, and the waters of life are poured over Tammuz instead.
Chapter 6
According to the chapter, how does Ishtar's character relate to the mourning and slaying of Tammuz?
The chapter presents two strands. In the Descent, Ishtar mourns for "the wound of Tammuz", smiting her breast. But Jastrow is cited describing Ishtar as the goddess of human instinct or passion accompanying human love, and Gilgamesh reproaches her with abandoning the objects of her passion after a brief union; her temple had public maidens accept temporary partners. The author argues this explains references to Tammuz's desertion and slaying by Ishtar.
Chapter 6
CHAPTER V. (part 3)4 cards
According to Jeremiah, how did families divide the work of making cakes to the queen of heaven?
Jeremiah describes a shared ritual: children gather wood, fathers kindle the fire, and women knead the dough to make cakes for the queen of heaven. The women, when challenged, insisted they had not acted without their men. The author cites this to show men cooperated in the archaic ceremonies, not only women.
Chapter 7
How does the author respond to Jastrow's claim that women are the conservative element in religion?
Jastrow suggested women preserve religious customs after men abandon them. The author argues Jeremiah's evidence shows men did cooperate in these rites, so the point should apply instead to immemorial folk religion practices. These differed from Babylonia's official cult of temples and organized priests, which went unrecognized in Palestine.
Chapter 7
Why did the Israelites say they burned incense to the queen of heaven?
Jeremiah reports the people answered that since they stopped burning incense and pouring drink offerings to the queen of heaven, they lacked all things and were consumed by sword and famine. The author notes women led these practices but said they did not act without their men.
Chapter 7
What does the author deduce about women's role in ancient folk worship of the Great Mother goddess?
The author argues women everywhere played a prominent part in ceremonial folk worship of the Great Mother, while men took the lesser role of the god she bore and later received as husband. This may explain the high social status of women among goddess worshippers, such as the Mediterranean race, whose religion was tied to everyday life rather than temples.
Chapter 7
CHAPTER VI. (part 1)4 cards
What title did a subjugated ruler adopt, and what did it mean?
A subjugated monarch who acknowledged a powerful king's suzerainty remained semi-independent on condition of paying heavy annual tribute of grain. He styled himself a Patesi, a "priest king," or more literally "servant of the chief deity." His own laws stayed in force and his city deities remained supreme, though the conqueror's deities might also be recognized. The chapter notes an independent monarch could also be a pious Patesi, so the title did not always imply lesser power.
Chapter 8
Why is knowledge of early Sumerian and Akkadian history so fragmentary?
The chapter states the Sumerians lacked the later Assyrians' and Egyptians' passion for history. Kings generally recorded pious deeds rather than victories and conquests, and the royal recorder seemed more concerned with Ishtar's tears for Tammuz than with political upheavals. City chronicles are mostly indices of obscure events. Historians rely on brick and door-socket inscriptions, year names, and ancestor references, which must be cross-checked since they rest on doubtful inscriptions or oral tradition.
Chapter 8
Who was Queen Azag-Bau and why are the Kish records doubted?
Tradition credits Azag-Bau, reportedly of humble origin and once a wine shop keeper, with founding Kish as a centre of goddess worship. The Chronicle of Kish gives her a reign of a hundred years, her son twenty-five, and the dynasty 586 years across eight rulers, some reigning only three, six, or eleven years. The chapter says this shows the historian of Kish cannot be absolutely relied upon in detail, though the queen was probably a real person.
Chapter 8
How does the chapter describe Nin-Girsu and Bau at Lagash?
Bau, "the mother of Lagash," was a Great Mother, creatrix, and harvest goddess, identified with Gula who cured diseases and prolonged life, and her attributes were later absorbed by the Semitic Ishtar. Nin-Girsu was an agricultural deity and therefore a deity of war, with solar attributes. One of his titles, En-Mersi, was according to Assyrian evidence another name of Tammuz, the spring god, so Nin-Girsu seems a developed form of Tammuz.
Chapter 8
CHAPTER VI. (part 2)4 cards
Who was Urukagina and what reforms did he enact in Lagash?
Urukagina was the first reformer in history, ruling Lagash first as patesi and later as king. He cut taxes and temple fees, reduced officials to a minimum, and sought justice and liberty, living uprightly himself. His laws resembled those later codified by Hammurabi. The author argues his zeal became fanaticism, disorganizing society and effectively dissolving the army.
Chapter 9
How did Urukagina's reforms contribute to the fall of Lagash?
The author argues Urukagina's sweeping changes disorganized society: taxes and temple fees were cut, officials reduced, and the army—recruited mainly from leisured and official classes—practically ceased to exist. Relief from taxation came at the cost of material security. After seven years, Umma's forces under Lugal-zaggisi shattered Lagash in a single day.
Chapter 9
Who was Lugal-zaggisi and how far did his empire extend?
Lugal-zaggisi was Patesi of Umma who destroyed Lagash, killed Kish's king Nanizak, subdued Nippur and southern cities, and made Erech his capital. He worshipped Enlil and Anu. One inscription claims he made his path from the Lower Sea to the Upper Sea, though the author notes the extent of his empire cannot be determined with certainty.
Chapter 9
What does the chapter say about Sargon I's origins and rise?
The author says Sargon was apparently an adventurer or usurper who owed his throne indirectly to Lugal-zaggisi. Later traditions, partly confirmed by inscriptions, hold he was of humble birth: his mother a vestal virgin of Shamash, his father an unknown mountain stranger. Legend says he was set adrift in a vessel and raised by a commoner until Ishtar aided him.
Chapter 9
CHAPTER VI. (part 3)4 cards
How did Enlil-bani come to the throne of Isin, according to the chapter?
The chapter reports a Babylonian document saying a royal grandson of Ur-Ninip, lacking a direct heir, chose his gardener Enlil-bani as successor, crowned him, abdicated, and died mysteriously in his palace. The author argues Enlil-bani was probably a usurper, like Sargon of Akkad, who may have circulated a myth of miraculous origin and likely rose through a palace revolution amid unrest.
Chapter 10
What happened to Enlil-bani's rule after Sin-ikisha displaced him?
Sin-ikisha, described as evidently a moon worshipper perhaps connected with Ur, displaced Enlil-bani and proclaimed himself king, but his reign lasted only six months before Enlil-bani overthrew him. Enlil-bani credited his triumph to the chief god of Nippur, whose name he bore, strengthened Isin's fortifications, and reigned about a quarter of a century, yet was followed by King Zambia, no relation, who reigned three years.
Chapter 10
How did Isin's dynasty end and Babylon become the metropolis?
Damik-ilishu, the last King of Isin, reigned twenty-four years and came under the suzerainty of Larsa's ruler Rim Sin, an Elamite. Isin was then captured by Sin-muballit, King of Babylon and father of Hammurabi. Afterwards Babylon became the metropolis, the names Sumer and Akkad dropped out of use, the whole land was called Babylonia, Hammurabi codified the various state laws, appointed governors over cities, and a new national pantheon formed under Merodach.
Chapter 10
Why did Sumerian gods keep beards after Sumerians shaved, and when did Semitic beards appear?
The author argues the Sumerians gave their deities human shape before they themselves were clean shaven, so the retained chin tuft reflects the conservatism of religious instinct, as with Egypt's clean-shaven Pharaohs wearing false beards. Early Tello reliefs show gods with shaved lips and cheeks plus an exaggerated chin tuft. Not until Gudea of Lagash did gods get heavy moustaches, side whiskers, and flowing Semitic beards, possibly under Akkadian artistic influence.
Chapter 10
CHAPTER VII.4 cards
Who were the parents of the first gods in the Babylonian creation legend?
Apsu was the father of the primordial Deep and Tiamat was the mother, the spirit of Chaos. From a movement in the waters the deities issued forth: first Lachmu and Lachamu, then Anshar and Kishar, then Anu and Ea. Ea's son was Bel, the lord, who in time created mankind.
Chapter 11
How did Ea defeat Apsu and Mummu?
Ea, who knoweth all, beheld the evil ones conspiring and muttering together. He uttered a pure incantation and accomplished the downfall of Apsu and Mummu, who were taken captive. The chapter notes that Anshar later reminded Ea he had gone forth aforetime to battle, bound Mummu, and smote Apsu.
Chapter 11
What did Merodach demand before agreeing to fight Tiamat?
Merodach asked Anshar to proclaim his greatness among the gods, to gather all the high gods in the Council Hall so his words would remain unchanged, and to let him decree the fates of the gods instead of Anshar. The gods then decreed his fate, gave him sovereignty over the universe, and made him king.
Chapter 11
How did Merodach slay Tiamat?
Merodach spread out the net Anu had given him and snared the dragon so she could not escape. When Tiamat opened her mouth, he called upon the evil wind to keep it agape, and tempests and hurricanes filled her body. He then cast his dart through her lower body, tearing her inward parts and severing her heart.
Chapter 11
CHAPTER VIII. (part 1)3 cards
What does Etana seek on his quest, and why?
Etana seeks the Plant of Birth because his wife is about to become a mother and needs magical aid. In a fragmentary legend preserved in Ashur-banipal's tablet-library, he obtains the Eagle's help for this quest. The chapter compares this belief to the use of birth girdles of straw or serpent skins and eagle stones found in eagles' nests in ancient Britain and elsewhere in Europe.
Chapter 12
How does the chapter describe the eagle's role across mythologies?
The chapter states the eagle appears to have once been worshipped as god or goddess of fertility, storm and lightning, bringer of children, and carrier of souls to Hades, and as a symbol of royalty because the earthly ruler represented the controlling deity. Examples include Nin-Girsu as a lion-headed eagle, Zeus attended by an eagle, and Garuda identified with Agni, Brahma, Indra, and Yama.
Chapter 12
What Roman custom involving an eagle does the chapter describe?
The chapter describes the deified Roman Emperor's waxen image being burned on a pyre after death, with an eagle let loose from the great pile to carry his soul to heaven. It suggests this custom was probably a relic of seasonal fire worship, possibly introduced by the Mitanni rulers or an archaic Babylonian custom tied to fire-and-water magical ceremonies.
Chapter 12
CHAPTER VIII. (part 2)4 cards
Why does Gilgamesh reject Ishtar's offer to be her consort?
Gilgamesh refuses because he fears the fate of Ishtar's previous lovers. He recounts that she caused Tammuz to weep yearly, broke the wings of the Allala bird, snared the lion, harnessed the horse, smote a shepherd into a jackal, and afflicted the gardener Ishullanu. He concludes that if she loved him, his fate would resemble theirs.
Chapter 13
What counsel does the sea lady Sabitu give Gilgamesh?
Sabitu tells Gilgamesh that the life he seeks cannot be found, since the gods fixed death for mankind and kept life in their own hands. She advises him to fill his belly, be merry day and night, feast, dance, keep clean, and rejoice in his child and wife. The author notes this resembles the Egyptian Lay of the Harper and Ecclesiastes.
Chapter 13
How does Gilgamesh lose the magic plant of life?
Pir-napishtim reveals a plant that can renew life and restore youth. Gilgamesh obtains it and plans to take it to Erech. While he stops to draw water from a well, the demon Earth Lion creeps forth as a serpent, seizes the plant, and carries it away. Gilgamesh weeps and asks why his health was restored if the benefit falls to the serpent.
Chapter 13
What does Pir-napishtim tell Gilgamesh about death?
Pir-napishtim reminds Gilgamesh that all men must die. As long as people build houses, seal contracts, dispute, and sow seeds, and rivers rise in flood, their fate endures. No man can tell when his hour will come, for the god of destiny fixes the day of death but never reveals his secrets.
Chapter 13
CHAPTER VIII. (part 3)4 cards
What parallel does the chapter draw between Gilgamesh and Hanuman?
The chapter notes a remarkable resemblance between Gilgamesh's journey through the mountain tunnel to the garden and seashore and the Indian story of Hanuman passing through a long cavern to the shoreland palace of the female ascetic Parbhàvati, while searching for Sita after her abduction by Ravana.
Chapter 14
What happens to the piper's dog in Scottish tunnel stories?
In the Scottish versions, the adventurers are invariably pipers accompanied by dogs. The sound of the pipes is heard for a time, then ceases suddenly, and shortly afterwards the dog returns without a hair upon its body, evidently having been in conflict with demons.
Chapter 14
What origin does the chapter suggest for widespread tunnel stories?
The chapter suggests it is possible these widespread tunnel stories originated among the cave dwellers of the Palaeolithic Age, who believed deep caverns were the doors of underground retreats of dragons, giants, and other supernatural enemies of mankind. Note the hedge: the author offers this as a possibility, not a certainty.
Chapter 14
How did Babylonian priests shape floating mythological material?
The chapter states that in Babylonia, as elsewhere, the priests utilized the floating material from which all mythologies were framed and impressed upon it the stamp of their doctrines. The symbolized stories were afterwards distributed far and wide, much as stories attached to Alexander the Great's memory spread in a later period.
Chapter 14
CHAPTER IX. (part 1)4 cards
Why did Ea tell Pir-napishtim to say Bel hated him?
Ea instructed Pir-napishtim to tell the elders and young men that Bel hated him, so he could not remain in Shurippak and must depart to Ea's domain. Ea also told him to say Bel would send abundance of rain for birds, fishes, and harvests, while Shamash had appointed a time for Ramman to pour destruction from the heavens.
Chapter 15
How did Bel reward Pir-napishtim and his wife after the flood?
Bel entered the ship alone, grasped Pir-napishtim's hand, led him and his wife forth, and blessed them. He declared that henceforth they would be like deities and dwell apart beyond the river mouths. Bel then carried Pir-napishtim beyond the mouths of rivers, making the pair immortal.
Chapter 15
What sequence of birds did Pir-napishtim send from the ship?
After the ship held fast on Mount Nitsir for six days, on the seventh Pir-napishtim sent a dove, which found no resting place and returned. He then sent a swallow, which also returned. Finally he sent a raven, which saw the waters shrinking, gorged and croaked and waded, but did not return.
Chapter 15
How does the Egyptian flood myth differ from the Babylonian one?
In the Egyptian myth, Ra sends Hathor-Sekhet to slay mankind on the hills after men mutter against him. Ra then protects the remnant by having corn beer mixed with herbs and human blood poured out; the goddess drinks, becomes drunk, and takes no more cognizance of men. The author argues this myth refers to the annual Nile inundation.
Chapter 15
CHAPTER IX. (part 2)4 cards
Where do Pir-napishtim and his wife reside after the Flood, and who may join them?
Pir-napishtim, who escaped the Flood, resides with his wife in an Island Paradise resembling the Greek Islands of the Blessed, the Irish Tir nan og, and the British Avilion. Only these two human beings were permitted to reside there; Gilgamesh apparently could not join them, since Babylonian gods did not transport heroes to a happy isle as Greek, Celtic, and Aryo-Indian gods did.
Chapter 16
What Babylonian belief about the dead does the chapter describe, and what role did priests play?
The chapter states there was no Heaven for the Babylonian dead; all mankind were doomed to the gloomy Underworld, a land of darkness resembling Greek Hades and Teutonic Nifelhel. The author argues that by disseminating the belief that the dead must be buried with much ceremony, priests secured great power over the people and extracted large fees.
Chapter 16
How did Nergal come to rule the Underworld with Eresh-ki-gal?
Eresh-ki-gal, unable to leave the Underworld, sent the plague demon Namtar for her feast share; all deities honoured Namtar except Nergal. Angered, she demanded Nergal be delivered to her for death. Nergal hastened down with fierce demons guarding the doors, seized her by the hair, and dragged her from her throne. She begged mercy and offered marriage, sovereignty over the wide earth, and the tablet of wisdom; Nergal accepted.
Chapter 16
What happened to the Babylonian dead who were not properly buried?
According to Babylonian belief, the dead who were not properly buried roamed through the streets searching for food, eating refuse and drinking impure water. The Gilgamesh epic, as quoted by Professor Jastrow, contrasts the properly buried, who rest on a couch and drink pure water, with the neglected shade that has no rest in the earth and eats what is left over in the pot and thrown in the street.
Chapter 16
CHAPTER IX. (part 3)3 cards
What custom was practiced when a foreign country was invaded, and what was probably believed?
When a foreign country was invaded, it was a common custom to break open the tombs and scatter the bones they contained. Probably it was believed that when such acts of vandalism were committed, the offended spirits would plague their kinsfolk. The chapter also notes that enemies slain in battle were not given decent burial but were mutilated and left for birds and beasts.
Chapter 17
What does the 'Cuthean Legend' narrative describe, and where was the victory recorded?
The fragmentary narrative, once called the "Cuthean Legend of Creation" and shown by Mr. L.W. King to have no connection with Merodach and the dragon, deals with a king's war against evil spirits led by "the lord of heights, lord of the Anunaki." Some had bodies like birds, others "raven faces," all suckled by Tiamat. After three years of failed armies, the king went himself, performed costly rites, and routed them, recording the victory on tablets in Nergal's shrine at Cuthah.
Chapter 17
What may the Cuthean Legend have been composed to encourage, according to the chapter?
The chapter suggests the myth may be an echo of Nergal's raid against Eresh-ki-gal. Alternatively, being associated with Cuthah, it may have been composed to encourage burial in that city's sacred cemetery, which the famous old king had cleared of the evil demons that tormented the dead and made seasonal attacks against the living.
Chapter 17
CHAPTER X.4 cards
What were the three chief social grades revealed by Hammurabi's Code?
The Code indicates three chief social grades: the aristocracy (landowners, high officials, administrators), the freemen (wealthy merchants or small landholders), and the slaves. Fines for a given offence were much heavier for wealthy men than for the poor, reflecting graded social status in the legal system.
Chapter 18
How did Hammurabi's Code treat theft and false evidence?
Theft was regarded as a heinous crime and was invariably punished by death; thieves included those who bought from minors or slaves without sanction of elders or trustees. Sometimes a fine exceeding the stolen item's value ten- or thirty-fold was allowed. A man giving false evidence in a capital charge was put to death, and judges who willingly convicted on insufficient evidence were fined and degraded.
Chapter 18
According to Herodotus, what was the Babylonian marriage-by-auction custom?
Herodotus described an annual village auction where maidens of marriageable age were collected and offered one by one, beginning with the most beautiful. The richest Babylonians bid against each other for the loveliest, while humbler suitors took homelier damsels who came with marriage portions. All were sold to be wives.
Chapter 18
What did Herodotus report about the topmost tower of E-sagila?
Herodotus wrote that within the precinct stood a tower of solid masonry, with seven more towers raised above it, reached by an outside winding path with a resting-place halfway. On the topmost tower was a spacious temple containing a richly adorned couch and golden table, with no statue, occupied at night only by a single native woman whom the Chaldaean priests said the deity chose from all the land.
Chapter 18
CHAPTER XI.4 cards
Which two cities were seats of the Sumerian and Akkadian sun cults in this period?
The chapter states that Larsa was the seat of the Sumerian sun cult and was chosen as the capital of the Elamite conquerors, while Sippar was the seat of the Akkadian sun cult and the place where the Amorites first established power. Babbar, the sun god of Sippar, was called Shamash by the Semites and was later worshipped in Babylon as an abstract deity of righteousness and law.
Chapter 19
What did Sumu-la-ilu do to Kish and its king Bunutakhtunila?
Sumu-la-ilu attacked and captured Kish but did not slay its king Bunutakhtunila, who became his vassal. Under Sumu-la-ilu's overlordship, the next ruler of Kish, Immerum, gave prominence to the public worship of Shamash, showing that politics and religion went hand in hand. Sumu-la-ilu also strengthened Sippar's defences and restored the wall and temple of Cuthah.
Chapter 19
Which five great cities does the chapter say were destroyed by fire?
The chapter states that at least five great cities were destroyed by fire, as testified by evidence accumulated by excavators: Lagash, Umma, Shurruppak, Kisurra, and Adab. Lagash, whose glory had been revived by Gudea and his kinsmen, fell soon after the rise of Larsa and lay in ruins until the Seleucid Period, when it was briefly occupied again. Most relics of ancient Sumerian civilization were recovered from its mound at Tello.
Chapter 19
How does the chapter identify the four kings who raided the Western Land?
The chapter presents the Biblical confederacy as Amraphel (identified with Hammurabi) king of Shinar, Arioch (Eri-aku or Warad-Sin) king of Ellasar, Chedor-laomer (Kudur-Mabug) king of Elam, and Tidal (Tudhula) king of nations. It says the identification of Hammurabi with Amraphel is now generally accepted, noting the form 'Ammurapi' on a tablet resolved the earlier guttural 'h' difficulty.
Chapter 19
CHAPTER XII. (part 1)4 cards
What evidence shows Hittite civilization's antiquity at Sakje-Geuzi?
Excavations at an undisturbed artificial mound at Sakje-Geuzi revealed a continuous culture flourishing before 3000 B.C. A lower layer contained Neolithic yellow-painted pottery with black geometric designs resembling finds in Turkestan, Susa, the Balkans, an Egyptian First Dynasty tomb at Abydos, and Minoan Crete. These relics may connect to the prehistoric westward drift of broad-headed pastoral peoples who formed the Hittite military aristocracy.
Chapter 20
How does the chapter describe the Hittite storm god and his identifications?
The war god of the mountaineers, armed with a thunder hammer, trident, and two-edged sword, was worshipped by Hittites, northern Amorites, Mitannians, and Kassites. The chapter identifies him with Thor, Indra, Tarku, Teshub, Sandan, Adad/Hadad, and Ramman; his Hittite name is uncertain, but under Rameses II he was identified with Sutekh (Set). He passed into southern Europe as Zeus.
Chapter 20
Why did the early Hittites who took Babylon likely act as organized power?
The Hittites who entered Babylon about 1800 B.C. and overthrew the last Hammurabi king may have been raiders or an organized force; the author argues the latter, since although they carried off Merodach and Zerpanitu, the idols were not melted down but apparently retained for political reasons. The chapter calls these early Hittites 'a people of the mist.'
Chapter 20
What does the chapter conclude from Esau's Hittite wives and Rebekah's worry?
Esau married Judith daughter of Beeri the Hittite and Bashemath daughter of Elon the Hittite, a grief to Isaac and Rebekah. The chapter draws two deductions: the Hebrews regarded Hittites 'of the land' as one with Canaanites, the stocks being well fused; and Rebekah wanted Jacob's wives chosen from her own Mesopotamian relations, of Sumerian stock and kindred of Abraham.
Chapter 20
CHAPTER XII. (part 2)3 cards
According to the chapter, what did Agum II do for Merodach and E-sagila?
Agum II, the first Kassite king to become thoroughly Babylonianized, recovered Merodach's statue from "Khani" and re-exalted the god, though he still recognized the Kassite battle god Shuqamuna. He decorated E-sagila with gold, jewels, rare woods, frescoes, and pictorial tiles, and re-endowed the priesthood. The chapter notes uncertainty over whether he fought Mitanni or acted as its ally.
Chapter 21
How does the chapter explain the name Nimrod and its link to Merodach?
The chapter cites Professor Pinches, who showed Nimrod's name renders that of Merodach. In Sumerian Merodach was Amaruduk or Amarudu, and in Assyro-Babylonian Marduk; the suffix "uk" was dropped, giving Marad, and the Hebrews added "ni" to form Ni-marad, adjusting it to Hebrew verb forms. Nimrod appears as a deified monarch identified with Babylonia's national god.
Chapter 21
What does the chapter say about Assyria's early rulers and origins?
The chapter reports that all Assyrian deities were imported from Babylonia except possibly Ashur, the national god, whose identity with Aryo-Indian Asura and Persian Ahura is not generally accepted. Mr. Johns notes the early rulers Ushpia, Kikia, and Adasi have names neither Semitic nor Sumerian, suggesting pre-Semitic Aryan or Elamitic influence. Assyria was later Semitized by the Amoritic migration around 2000 B.C.
Chapter 21
CHAPTER XII. (part 3)4 cards
Why did Ashur-uballit retain his messengers instead of sending them to Egypt?
In a Tell-el-Amarna letter to Akhenaton, Ashur-uballit explained that the lands of Assyria and Egypt were remote, and that the Suti bandits would have waylaid and killed his messengers had he sent them. He therefore retained them, asking that they not be blamed for the delay.
Chapter 22
Why was Kadashman-Kharbe murdered by the Kassite aristocracy?
The Kassite king Kadashman-Kharbe had extended Babylon's frontier into Amurru, digging wells and building forts to protect traders. The Kassite aristocracy appear to have strongly disliked him, perhaps because he was closely associated with their hereditary enemies the Assyrians. Rebellion broke out and he was murdered in his palace.
Chapter 22
How did Ashur-uballit respond to the Kassites choosing Nazibugash as king?
After Kadashman-Kharbe's murder, the Kassites selected Nazibugash, a man of humble origin later called 'the son of nobody'. Ashur-uballit appeared suddenly at the capital with a strong army, overawed the Kassites, seized and slew Nazibugash, and placed his great-grandson, the infant Kurigalzu II, on the throne.
Chapter 22
What was the outcome of the conflict between Bel-nirari and Kurigalzu II?
For many years Bel-nirari maintained excellent relations with his kinsman Kurigalzu II, but they ultimately clashed, apparently over disputed territory. A bloody battle routed the Babylonians, who suffered heavily. A peace treaty then extended Assyria's frontier from the borders of Mitanni as far as Babylonia.
Chapter 22
CHAPTER XIII. (part 1)4 cards
Why did Babylonian priests become great astronomers, according to the chapter?
The author argues that the Babylonian priests elaborated the study of astrology and became great astronomers because they found it necessary to observe and record accurately the movements of the heavenly bodies. He compares this to Indian ritualists developing algebra and Egyptian pyramid builders laying the groundwork of geometry, noting that culture was a by-product of temple activities.
Chapter 23
Did Sumerian myths begin as star myths, according to the author?
No. The author argues that although Sumerian religious beliefs had vague stellar associations from earliest times, it does not follow that their myths were star myths to begin with. When a people called constellations 'the ram', 'the bull', 'the lion', or 'the scorpion', they did so because the animals had an earlier connection with their religious life, not because astral groups suggested animal forms.
Chapter 23
What distinguishes Naturalism from Animism in the chapter's scheme?
Naturalism is the belief in a vague impersonal force, manifest in everything, that controls the world and human lives; Mr. Risley's jungle dwellers of Chota Nagpur illustrate a power rather than many powers. Animism holds that the world swarms with spirits—in trees, winds, rivers, hills, animals—and that sun, moon, and stars are spirits or their abodes. Ancestor worship arose in the Animism stage.
Chapter 23
Why did an elaborate system of astral myths develop in Babylonia specifically?
The author argues that the importance of stars in local mythologies depended first on local phenomena. On the northern Eur-Asian steppes, stars vanished during summer's blue nights and were often clouded in winter, so they impressed minds less. In Babylonia stars gleamed through a dry transparent atmosphere with awesome intensity much of the year. Elaborate astral myths also required civilization, leisure, and security for observation and record-keeping.
Chapter 23
CHAPTER XIII. (part 2)3 cards
Which seven planets did the Babylonians associate with their chief gods?
A bilingual list in the British Museum arranges the sevenfold planetary group as: the moon, Sin; the sun, Shamash; Jupiter, Merodach; Venus, Ishtar; Saturn, Ninip (Nirig); Mercury, Nebo; and Mars, Nergal. The chapter notes these were connected with the chief gods of the Hammurabi pantheon once the five planets were identified and joined to sun and moon.
Chapter 24
How did the Babylonians divide the sun's path, and what did each month have?
The Babylonian scientists divided the Ecliptic, the middle line of the sun's path, into twelve equal parts and grouped in each part the stars forming their constellations, also called Signs of the Zodiac. Each month thus had its sign or constellation, and each month was also controlled by a planet and a zodiacal constellation.
Chapter 24
What was Nebo's character and which planet was he identified with?
Nebo (Nabu), a god of Borsippa identified with Mercury, was a messenger and "announcer" of the gods, like the Greek Hermes, and an instructor of mankind. Jastrow regards him as "a counterpart of Ea," embodiment and source of wisdom, with the art of writing especially associated with him; a common form of his name designates him "god of the stylus."
Chapter 24
CHAPTER XIII. (part 3)4 cards
How did the Babylonian number system build up to 432,000 years?
The Babylonian multiplied 6 by 10 (pur) to get 60 (soss); 60x10 gave 600 (ner), and 600x6 gave 3600 (sar). Then 3600x10 gave 36,000, and 36,000x12 gave 432,000 years, or 120 saroi, equal to the sar multiplied by the soss times 2.
Chapter 25
How do the four Indian Yugas relate to Babylonian numbers?
The shortest Indian Yuga is the Babylonian 120 saroi multiplied by 10, giving 1200 divine years for the Kali Yuga. Doubling gives Dvapara at 2400; adding 1200 gives Treta at 3600; adding another 1200 gives Krita at 4800. The four total 12,000 divine years, a Maha-yuga, which equals 120 saroi multiplied by 100.
Chapter 25
What colour sequences do the Indian/Irish and Greek ages follow?
The Indian and Irish Ages share the same colour sequence: White or Silvern, Red or Bronze, Yellow or Golden, and Black or Iron. The Greek order is different: Golden, Silvern, Bronze, and Iron. The author notes the Indian and Irish systems begin with the Silvern or white lunar period, while the Greek order may have had a solar significance.
Chapter 25
What did Plutarch report about Chaldean views of the planets?
Plutarch wrote that the Chaldeans called the planets birth-ruling divinities and held that two, Venus and Jupiter, are propitious; two, Mars and Saturn, malign; and three, Sun, Moon, and Mercury, of a middle nature and one common. Mr. Brown comments that an astrologer would say these three are propitious with the good and may be malign with the bad.
Chapter 25
CHAPTER XIII. (part 4)3 cards
How did Babylonian astrology treat the positions of constellations before an expedition?
Much importance was attached to the positions occupied by the constellations when the planets were propitious or otherwise. The chapter notes that no king would venture forth on an expedition under a "yoke of inauspicious stars," showing that constellation positions functioned as a practical go/no-go signal for military campaigns.
Chapter 26
Which Babylonian constellations does the chapter say appear in biblical references?
The chapter says biblical references to the stars mention well-known Babylonian constellations, citing Job xxxviii, 31-33 (Pleiades, Orion, Mazzaroth, Arcturus with his sons), Job ix, 9 (Arcturus, Orion, Pleiades, chambers of the south), and Amos v, 8 (the seven stars and Orion).
Chapter 26
What does the author argue about astrology's origins and survival?
The author argues that the so-called science of astrology had its origin in ancient Babylonia and spread eastward and west, and that it is not yet extinct, having believers even in the author's own country at the present day, though far fewer than in Shakespeare's or Byron's time.
Chapter 26
CHAPTER XIV. (part 1)4 cards
What differing views do philologists hold on the derivation of the name Ashur?
Philologists disagree: some give Ashur a geographical sense, claiming the original form was Aushar, "water field"; others render it "Holy", "the Beneficent One", or "the Merciful One"; and not a few regard Ashur as a dialectic form of Anshar, chief of the "host of heaven" and father of Anu, Ea, and Enlil in the Assyrian Creation myth.
Chapter 27
How does the chapter connect Anshar to the Polar Star and the celestial mountain?
The Babylonian astrologers identified the stable, controlling spirit of the night heaven with the Polar Star, called "Ilu Sar", "the god Shar", or Anshar, meaning "star of the height". Situated at the summit of the vault of heaven, the god Shar stood upon the Celestial mountain, the Babylonian Olympus, associated with Ursa Minor, "the Lesser Chariot".
Chapter 27
How does the chapter interpret Isaiah's parable against the king of Babylon?
The author argues Isaiah used Babylonian symbolism: the king is identified with Lucifer as deity of fire and the morning star, the younger god who aspired to occupy the mountain throne of his father, the god Shar, the Polar or North Star. Isaiah was familiar with Tigro-Euphratean myths of deified kings and the displacement of the elder god by the younger.
Chapter 27
What animals were associated with Ashur, and how did he differ from Anshar in animal form?
The animals associated with Ashur were the bull, the eagle, and the lion. Ashur was not a "goat of heaven" but a "bull of heaven", like the Sumerian Nannar (Sin), Ninip of Saturn, and Bel Enlil. As the bull he was, like Anshar, the ruling animal of the heavens and had "six divinities of council" associated with him.
Chapter 27
CHAPTER XIV. (part 2)4 cards
What three phases of Assyrian civilization does Mackenzie expect Ashur to reflect?
Mackenzie argues Ashur should be seen in three phases of Assyrian civilization: as a god of fertility (including corn and water), as a god of war, and as a deity of commerce and law. He reasons that a city-state god must have been worshipped by agriculturists, artisans, and traders, so Ashur could not have begun merely as a battle and solar deity.
Chapter 28
Why does Mackenzie link the corn god to war and human sacrifice?
Mackenzie argues the corn god was a god of war because Tammuz first slew the demons of winter and storm, as Indra slew drought demons and Thor the frost giants. The corn god had to be fed with human sacrifices, so people waged war against foreigners to obtain victims. As the god made a contract with his people, he was also a deity of commerce.
Chapter 28
What did Layard identify as the four creatures on Assyrian sculptured walls?
Layard found the four creatures continually introduced on the sculptured walls were a man, a lion, an ox, and an eagle. Mackenzie connects these to Sumerian deity symbols: the bull stood for Nannar, Ninip, and Enlil; Nergal was a lion; and the eagle was represented by the Zu bird, a storm and fertility deity.
Chapter 28
How does Mackenzie interpret Ezekiel's four living creatures and wheels?
Mackenzie suggests Ezekiel utilized Assyrian symbolism, possibly through contact with fugitive Assyrian priests in Babylonia. The four faces—man, lion, ox, eagle—match Assyrian creatures, and the winged gods 'like burning coals' were probably painted in vermilion. He argues the wheel or hoop was a symbol of life, enclosing a god of fertility as well as war.
Chapter 28
CHAPTER XIV. (part 3)4 cards
What evidence does the chapter cite for the Babylonian spring fire ceremony and human sacrifice?
The chapter states it is evident the Babylonian fire ceremony was observed in spring and that human beings were sacrificed to the sun god. A mock king may have been burned to perpetuate the ancient sacrifice of real kings, who were incarnations of the god. Isaiah is cited as referring to the sacrificial burning of kings in Assyria, and Sardanapalus reportedly burned himself with his household when Nineveh was about to fall.
Chapter 29
How did burial burnings for Judean kings differ, according to the chapter?
The chapter contrasts three kings. Saul, a fallen king, was burned after death and his bones buried under the oak in Jabesh. Asa was laid in a bed filled with sweet odours and spices, and a very great burning was made for him. Jehoram, the heretic who walked in the way of the kings of Israel, died of an incurable disease and his people made no burning for him like that of his fathers.
Chapter 29
What does the chapter conclude about Ashur's character and symbols?
The chapter concludes Ashur was a highly developed form of the fertility god, sustained or aided in conflicts with demons by worshippers' fires and sacrifices. It warns against reading too much into his symbols, suggesting elaborate symbolism may indicate persistence of magical beliefs rather than spiritualization. The winged disk may not be more spiritual than the wheel enclosing the feather-robed archer; symbols may have represented phases of the god.
Chapter 29
How was the Assyrian king's relationship to Ashur distinctive?
The chapter states the ruling king of Assyria was more closely connected with Ashur's worship than the Babylonian king was with Merodach's. This may be because the Assyrian king was regarded as an incarnation of his god, like the Egyptian Pharaoh. Ashur accompanied the monarch on campaigns as the conquering war god; no images were made of him, but his symbols were carried aloft.
Chapter 29
CHAPTER XV.4 cards
What was Mitanni's role as Egypt's ally in Mesopotamia?
The chapter states Mitanni was the supreme power in Mesopotamia at the start of the Akhenaton period and, as Egypt's ally, served as a buffer state on the borders of North Syria. It blocked Hittite expansion from Asia Minor, Assyrian expansion westward, and Babylonian ambitions in the "land of the Amorites". While Mitanni remained strong, Egypt's Syrian possessions were easily controlled and Egyptian merchants enjoyed preferential treatment over Babylonian ones.
Chapter 30
Why did Kadashman-Kharbe's Arabian desert trade route fail?
The Kassite king Kadashman-Kharbe, grandson of Ashur-uballit, tried to protect traders by crushing the Suti bandits and opening a direct caravan road to Egypt across the Arabian desert, digging wells and building fortifications. The chapter says the scheme was doomed: the Babylonian Kassites gave it scant favour, likely because it meant abandoning Babylonia's claim on Mesopotamia and recognizing an Assyrian sphere. He was probably murdered by the Kassites for his pro-Assyrian tendencies.
Chapter 30
Who were the Suti and how did they affect trade?
The Suti were Arabians of Aramaean stock, part of the "Third Semitic Migration" in progress during this period. They infested the caravan roads, defied all the great powers, and robbed and murdered even messengers sent between kings. They harried livestock and sacked towns in unprotected areas, and by penetrating Mesopotamia and Syria they sapped Mitanni's power until it could not resist Assyria and the Hittites. They were also called Achlame, Arimi, and Khabiri.
Chapter 30
What did Shalmaneser I's reign achieve for Assyria?
After an earthquake destroyed Ishtar's temple at Nineveh and fire consumed Ashur's temple at Asshur, Shalmaneser I set out on conquest to secure treasure and slaves for rebuilding. The chapter calls him as great a builder and tireless a campaigner as Thothmes III, and under him Assyria became the most powerful nation in Western Asia. His armies were so dreaded that Egypt and Assyria ended their struggle for Syria and allied against a common enemy.
Chapter 30
CHAPTER XVI.4 cards
What was the Aramaean or Third Semitic migration, and what was its lasting effect?
The Aramaean, or Third Semitic migration, poured from Arabia into Syria in increasing volume toward the close of Egypt's Eighteenth Dynasty. Despite the great Powers' efforts to check it, it ultimately submerged the whole of Syria and part of Mesopotamia. Aramaean speech then came into common use over a wide area and was not displaced until the Fourth Semitic or Moslem migration from Arabia began in the seventh century of the Christian era.
Chapter 31
How did Rameses III defeat the European invaders, and who were the land raiders?
Rameses III of Egypt (1198-1167 B.C.) freed his country from a great invasion of Europeans by land and sea. He scattered a fleet on the Delta coast, then arrested a strong force pressing southward through Phoenicia toward the Egyptian frontier. The land raiders he thwarted were the Philistines, a people from Crete. These events occurred at the beginning of the Homeric Age and preceded the siege of Troy, which the Greeks dated to about 1194 B.C.
Chapter 31
What does Professor Macalister argue about the Philistines' cultural contribution to Palestine?
Professor Macalister argues the Hebrews contributed only simple desert customs and religious organization, while the Philistines, sprung from a great home of art, brought artistic instincts superior to anything in the land. He calls them the only cultured or artistic race who occupied Palestine until classical Greece's influence prevailed. Tombs at Gezer held beautiful jewellery and ornaments, and modern villagers still tell of the 'Fenish'.
Chapter 31
How did Tiglath-pileser I defeat the Muski threat to Assyria?
When Tiglath-pileser I came to the throne, northern Assyria was menaced by the Muski with their Hittite and Shubari allies; the very existence of Assyria as a separate power was threatened. He first invaded Mitanni and routed a combined Shubari-Hittite force. Then he surprised the great Muski army among the Kashiari mountains, crushed it, slew about 14,000, captured 6,000 prisoners transported to Asshur, and took all its baggage.
Chapter 31
CHAPTER XVII.4 cards
What brutal methods did Ashur-natsir-pal III use against rebels?
The chapter describes his methods as a reign of terror: chiefs were skinned alive, and when he sacked cities, fighting-men, women, and children were slaughtered or burned at the stake. At Suru, some were skinned, some impaled, and others enclosed in a pillar; the pretender Akhiababa was flayed at Nineveh and his skin nailed to the walls.
Chapter 32
Why did the Aramaeans resist Assyria so effectively at first?
The chapter states the Aramaeans were accustomed to desert warfare and were fearless warriors. Their armies were highly mobile, composed mostly of mounted infantry, and were not easily overpowered by Assyrian footmen and charioteers. It was only once cavalry was included in Assyria's standing army that campaigns against the Aramaeans achieved permanent success.
Chapter 32
How did Ashur-natsir-pal III deal with the Sukhi and Babylonians?
The Sukhi Aramaeans stirred up revolts in Mesopotamia as allies of the Babylonians. Ashur-natsir-pal swept southward and attacked their combined force, which was commanded by Zabdanu, brother of the Babylonian king Nabu-aplu-iddin. He won so completely that he captured the Babylonian general and 3000 followers; Kashshi and Kaldu then paid increased tribute.
Chapter 32
What does the chapter say about the character of Assyrian art of this period?
The author argues Assyrian sculptures lack the technical skill, delicacy, and imagination of Sumerian and Akkadian art, but are full of energy, dignified and massive, strong and lifelike. He says they reflect Assyria's greatness, which had a materialistic basis, and that Assyrian art delineated outward form rather than creating lasting beauty.
Chapter 32
CHAPTER XVIII. (part 1)3 cards
Who was Sammu-rammat, and what position did she hold in Assyrian inscriptions?
Sammu-rammat was a Babylonian royal princess who became the wife of an Assyrian ruler, probably Shamshi-Adad VII or his son Adad-nirari IV. She was the first and only Assyrian royal lady referred to on equal terms with her royal husband in official inscriptions, as in a dedication to Nebo invoking protection for Adad-nirari and "Sammu-rammat, she of the palace, his lady."
Chapter 33
What religious and cultural changes marked Adad-nirari IV's reign?
The Assyrian court radiated Babylonian culture. An ethical tendency exalted Shamash as an abstract deity who loved law and order, and Nebo of Borsippa gained prominence as god of culture and wisdom. A great temple to Nebo was erected at Kalkhi with four statues, one inscription urging, "Whoso cometh in after time, let him trust in Nebo and trust in no other god." The royal library at Kalkhi was greatly increased.
Chapter 33
What is the legendary story of Semiramis's birth and rise to power?
Tradition made Semiramis the daughter of Derceto, the dove and fish goddess of Askalon. Deserted at birth, she was protected by doves; her name is believed to derive from "Summat" (dove), meaning "the dove goddess loveth her." The shepherd Simmas adopted her. She married Onnes, then King Ninus, who proclaimed her queen for five days; she then imprisoned or killed him and reigned over forty years.
Chapter 33
CHAPTER XVIII. (part 2)4 cards
What does the dove symbolize in connection with the Cretan mother goddess?
The dove and snake were associated with the mother goddess of Crete, typifying her connection with air and earth. Professor Burrows explains that as the serpent from earth's crevices shows possession of the tree or pillar from the underworld, so the dove shows possession from the world of the sky. Her character was beneficent and pacific, though as Lady of the Wild Creatures she had a more fearful aspect, often depicted with lions on carved gems.
Chapter 34
What folk belief about pigeon feathers and deathbeds did Brand record?
In some districts the idea prevailed that no person could die on a bed containing pigeon feathers; a correspondent wrote that a sick person lying on them would languish and never die but be in pain and torment. Brand traced this belief in Yorkshire, Lancashire, Derbyshire, and some Welsh and Irish counties, and it still lingers in parts of the Scottish Highlands. Similar superstitions about wild fowl feathers existed elsewhere.
Chapter 34
How does the chapter explain the specialization of goddesses as fish, snake, or bird deities?
The author argues some explanation is needed, and presents the Totemic theory: tribes with various animal totems fused, so doves became associated with snake and fish goddesses of fertility. Frazer's Pelew Islanders example shows people held their own totem animals sacred but readily killed neighbors' sacred animals. Herodotus suggests Egyptians had similar district-specific sacred animals, with the crocodile venerated near Thebes but eaten near Elephantine.
Chapter 34
Why does the chapter argue the dove was venerated in Cyprus and Crete before Assyrian influence?
The author argues the theory of Semiramis's Median or Persian origin is somewhat narrow, since the dove may have been venerated in Cyprus, as it certainly was in Crete, long before Assyrian and Babylonian influence filtered westward through Phoenician and Hittite channels. Sir Arthur Evans notes the resemblance between Cretan and early Semitic beliefs points to some remote common element rather than definite borrowing by either side.
Chapter 34
CHAPTER XVIII. (part 3)2 cards
What ended the Middle Empire of Assyria?
In 746 B.C. a revolt broke out in Kalkhi and the king had to leave it. Soon afterwards he died, perhaps assassinated, and none of his sons came to the throne. His disappointed soldiers found a leader in one of his generals, who seized the throne and took the royal name Tiglath-pileser. Ashur-nirari IV was the last king of the Middle Empire of Assyria.
Chapter 35
What happened in Babylonia during Assyria's decline?
A year before the Kalkhi revolt of 746 B.C., Nabu-natsir, known to the Greeks as Nabonassar, was crowned king of Babylonia. The chapter notes that during this period of Assyrian decline the Aramaeans had become active, and that the Syrian provinces regained their independence as Adad-nirari V struggled to establish authority within Assyria's own borders.
Chapter 35
CHAPTER XIX. (part 1)4 cards
Who was Tiglath-pileser IV known as in the Bible, and what was his Babylonian name?
The Bible refers to him as Pul, Tiglath-pilneser, and Tiglath-pileser. The Babylonians knew him as Pulu, which some think was a term of contempt meaning "wild animal". He came to the Assyrian throne in April 745 B.C. and reigned until 727 B.C., apparently not of royal descent but a popular leader of the revolt against Ashur-nirari IV.
Chapter 36
How did Tiglath-pileser defeat Sharduris III at Qummukh, and what were the results?
In spring 743 B.C. Tiglath-pileser crossed the Euphrates and attacked the Urartian army unexpectedly in Qummukh. A fierce battle included a single combat between the rival kings. Urartu's chariots and cavalry fell into confusion; Sharduris leapt from his chariot and escaped on horseback, pursued until the bridge of the Euphrates. Over 70,000 of the enemy were slain or captured, and the Urartian camp was taken.
Chapter 36
Why did Menahem of Israel pay tribute to Tiglath-pileser, and what did it cost?
Menahem, a usurper who had killed Shallum, paid tribute to secure his own position through alliance with Assyria. He gave Pul a thousand talents of silver, exacted from Israel's wealthy men at fifty shekels each. The Biblical account says the king of Assyria then turned back and stayed not in the land. Rezin of Damascus, Hiram of Tyre, and Zabibi queen of the Arabians also sent gifts in 738 B.C.
Chapter 36
What happened when Tiglath-pileser invaded Urartu in 735 B.C.?
Sharduris could not protect his frontier; the Assyrians penetrated to his capital Dhuspas, which was captured. Sharduris took refuge in his rocky citadel, approachable only by a narrow path between high walls and towers, and defied Assyria there. Tiglath-pileser devastated the city on the plain and villages, destroying buildings and orchards and deporting inhabitants and livestock to Nineveh. Urartu was crippled and never regained its former prestige.
Chapter 36
CHAPTER XIX. (part 2)4 cards
What was the purpose of Assyria's policy of transporting rebellious inhabitants?
The chapter states the policy was intended to break the national spirit of rebellious subjects and compel them to become loyal to Assyria among alien peoples. Professor Maspero is quoted arguing that the colonists, exposed to the same hatred as the conquerors, soon made common cause with them, and in return for protection rallied to the governor against native revolts, helping consolidate the empire in distant regions.
Chapter 37
How did Sargon II finally take Babylon from Merodach Baladan?
Sargon interposed his army between the Babylonian and Elamite forces, subdued the Aramaeans east of the Tigris, and drove the Elamites into the mountains. He then invaded middle Babylonia from the east. Merodach Baladan evacuated Babylon, fled south, and, finding Elam unable to help, took refuge at Bit Jakin. Sargon captured Bit Jakin, but Merodach Baladan escaped into Elam. The priests of Babylon and Borsippa hailed Sargon as saviour, and he was proclaimed king at E-sagila.
Chapter 37
How did Isaiah influence Ahaz during the anti-Assyrian league?
The chapter says Ahaz faced a dilemma: if the allies won they would depose him, but if he joined and Assyria triumphed, the emperor would show him little mercy. The author credits Ahaz with a wise counsellor in the prophet Isaiah, who warned him against joining the league. Isaiah walked naked and barefoot three years as a sign that Assyria would lead away Egyptian and Ethiopian captives, and the allies would be ashamed of Ethiopia their expectation and Egypt their glory.
Chapter 37
What happened to King Rusas of Urartu after his defeat by Sargon?
In 714 B.C. Sargon attacked the revolting king of Zikirtu, who was supported by Rusas, his overlord. A fierce battle ended in a great Assyrian victory. Rusas fled, and when the Assyrians laid waste the country before them, he committed suicide according to Assyrian records, though Urartian records indicate he later took part in the struggle against Sargon. The Armenian peoples were compelled to acknowledge Assyrian suzerainty, and Sargon received gifts from tribes between Lake Van and the Caspian Sea.
Chapter 37
CHAPTER XIX. (part 3)4 cards
What did Sennacherib do to Babylon after capturing it in 689 B.C.?
Sennacherib looted houses and temples for several days, slaughtered inhabitants, robbed E-sagila of treasures, broke or removed divine images, and sent Bel-Merodach's statue to Asshur. He recorded destroying the city from foundation to roof, burning it, and casting its walls and towers into the Arakhtu. Mr. King notes the destruction was so thorough that excavators found little of pre-Neo-Babylonian Babylon.
Chapter 38
How did Esarhaddon's policies toward Babylon and vassals differ from Sennacherib's?
Esarhaddon adopted conciliation toward vassal states and treated rebel kings magnanimously. He restored Babylon, which regained its position as a trading and industrial centre within three years, expelled Chaldaeans from seized private estates and returned them to rightful heirs, and accepted a repentant Chaldaean prince as vassal king. The author suggests his time as governor in Babylonia attracted him to its ethical ideals.
Chapter 38
How did Esarhaddon conquer Egypt and commemorate the victory?
After a failed invasion in 674 B.C. and Tyre's revolt in 673 B.C., Esarhaddon returned in 671 B.C. with a stronger army. A detachment invested Tyre while the main force crossed the Delta and defeated Taharka at Memphis, which was occupied and plundered. Lower Egypt became an Assyrian province with governors over petty kings. He erected a victory statue at Singirli depicting Taharka and Tyre's king as dwarfish figures on cords.
Chapter 38
How did Esarhaddon divide his empire before his planned Egyptian campaign?
Fearing intrigue during his absence, Esarhaddon stayed in Assyria in 669 B.C. and slew many noble men with the sword; Ashur-bani-pal was evidently involved and pleaded for some conspirators. The crown prince Sinidinabal was dead, perhaps assassinated. At the feast of Gula around late April 668 B.C., he made Ashur-bani-pal King of Assyria and Shamash-shum-ukin King of Babylon as his vassal, giving other sons priestly posts.
Chapter 38
XX. The Last Days of Assyria and Babylonia (part 1)4 cards
According to the preface, what modern inheritances come from ancient Babylonia?
The author states that traces of early Eastern cultural influence survive in Europe today. He cites two examples: the Signs of the Zodiac, and the system of measuring time and space using 60 as a basic numeral for calculation. Both are described as inheritances from ancient Babylonia.
Chapter 39
How does Merodach defeat Tiamat and use her body in the Creation Myth?
Merodach kills the dragon Tiamat by casting his weapon down her throat, smashing her skull and cutting through her blood channels. He splits her body like a flat fish into two halves, forming the heavens with one half and the earth with the other, then sets the universe in order. The author notes Merodach's power and wisdom as Demiurge derived from Tiamat.
Chapter 39
What does the author suggest Merodach gained by dividing the 'Ku-pu'?
The author argues Merodach's division of the 'Ku-pu' was an act of contagious magic: by eating or otherwise disposing of the vital part of the wise mother dragon, he became endowed with her attributes and could proceed with creation. Mr. King notes 'Ku-pu' is of uncertain meaning; Jensen suggests 'trunk, body'.
Chapter 39
Which heroes does the chapter say gained wisdom by eating a dragon's heart?
The chapter lists several: Apollonius of Tyana, who according to Philostratus learned animal languages as Arabs do by eating dragon hearts; Siegfried, who became invulnerable bathing in the Regin dragon's blood and understood birds after tasting its heart; and Sigurd, who made plans after eating the Fafner dragon's heart.
Chapter 39
XX. The Last Days of Assyria and Babylonia (part 2)4 cards
Who continued George Smith's work after his death, and what did he find?
Rassam was engaged to continue Smith's work, excavating between 1877 and 1882. His notable discoveries included the bronze doors of a Shalmaneser temple, the sun temple at Sippar, the palace of Nebuchadrezzar famous for its hanging gardens, a cylinder of Nabonidus, and about fifty thousand tablets.
Chapter 40
What does the author say about why Babylonian mythology has local characteristics?
The author argues a mythology reflects the geography, fauna and flora, and climate of the area where it took permanent shape. Since human experiences varied by locality, different habits of life produced different habits of thought. Babylonia's mythology should therefore mirror its river and valley scenery, the people's habits of life, and stages of civilization.
Chapter 40
What warning does the author give about myths resembling each other across cultures?
The author warns it is as rash to conclude all resemblances are due to homogeneity of race as to assume folklore has no ethnological elements. Cultural contact and the human mind independently reaching similar conclusions must be considered. He also notes striking differences remain, since peoples faced different problems in their environments.
Chapter 40
Who was Ea, and how did his attributes develop?
Ea was the most typical Babylonian deity, god of the fertilizing and creative waters, depicted clad in a fish's skin. Originally he appears to have been a fish, the life principle of the Euphrates, worshipped at Eridu. As civilization grew, he was reputed to have taught people to form canals, control rivers, cultivate fields, and build houses, though he also had a demoniac form.
Chapter 40
XX. The Last Days of Assyria and Babylonia (part 3)4 cards
According to the author, what social condition enabled civilization to progress in Mesopotamia?
The author argues that civilization advanced when wealth accumulated in sufficient abundance to allow a leisured class to devote time to study and research. Endowed priests who performed temple ceremonies served as teachers of the people and patrons of culture, providing the leisure and sponsorship that supported learning and the arts.
Chapter 41
What does the author say the priests inspired and moved, despite their superstitions?
The author argues that although we may think little of the priests' religious beliefs, they inspired the artists and sculptors whose achievements compel wonder, moved statesmen to inaugurate and administer humanitarian laws, and exalted Right above Might. The author notes our knowledge of those beliefs is superficial, comparing it to fragments of a shell that held a pearl.
Chapter 41
How does the author describe the Mesopotamian and Nilotic civilizations' role in later history?
The author argues these civilizations were built on no unsound foundations and made possible "the glory that was Greece and the grandeur that was Rome." He states it is only within recent years that we have begun to realize how incalculable is the debt the modern world owes to them, placing Mesopotamia and the Nile among the earliest of the old-world civilizations.
Chapter 41
What image does the author use to describe our knowledge of the priests' religious beliefs?
The author argues we have only a superficial knowledge of the priests' beliefs, saying we have discovered little more than the fragments of the shell which held the pearl, and the faded petals that were once a rose. He uses this to concede ignorance while still crediting the priests' cultural influence.
Chapter 41
CHAPTER XX. (part 1)4 cards
What grievance kept Babylon unsettled under Shamash-shum-ukin, and how was it resolved?
The god Merodach remained a captive in Ashur's temple, and no king could reign aright until he had "taken the hands of Bel." After consulting Shamash's oracle, Ashur-bani-pal submitted, pleaded with Merodach to return, and the image was carried back to E-sagila after about a quarter of a century, with Shamash-shum-ukin performing the ceremony.
Chapter 42
Why did the priests hold such power over the Babylonian throne?
The welfare of the kingdom depended on the king's relationship with Merodach: if the god was satisfied he blessed the land, if angry he sent calamities. The king became the god's steward through the hand-taking ceremony, so the priests, who mediated this, could strengthen a monarch or cause him to be deposed.
Chapter 42
What happened to Thebes after Ashur-bani-pal's army captured it in 661 B.C.?
The Assyrians expelled the Ethiopians, pursued Tanutamon southward, and besieged and sacked Thebes. Its nobles were slain or taken captive, its treasures were transported to Nineveh, and the city never again recovered its prestige. Ethiopian supremacy in Egypt was finally extinguished, and Psamtik began to reign as Assyria's vassal.
Chapter 42
Who instigated the major conspiracy against Ashur-bani-pal, and how was it exposed?
His brother Shamash-shum-ukin of Babylon, after fifteen years of peaceful co-operation, won over Babylonian governors, Chaldaeans, Aramaeans, Elamites, and petty kings in Palestine and Syria, with Egypt and Libya ready to help. The faithful governor of Ur reported it, and his superior at Erech informed Ashur-bani-pal.
Chapter 42
CHAPTER XX. (part 2)4 cards
What did Nebuchadrezzar II accomplish at Babylon?
The author credits Nebuchadrezzar II, who reigned over forty years after succeeding Nabopolassar in 604 B.C., with building the city Herodotus described, constructing its vast outer wall, and erecting the great palace and hanging gardens. He also decorated Merodach's temple more magnificently than before, restored temples elsewhere, gave gifts to priests, and settled captives as canal cleaners and farm labourers.
Chapter 43
How did Nebuchadrezzar respond to Zedekiah's rebellion, and what happened to Jerusalem?
Zedekiah conspired with Tyre, Sidon, Moab, Edom, Ammon, and Egypt's Pharaoh Hophra, then rebelled. Nebuchadrezzar's army captured Lachish and Azekah; Jerusalem held out about eighteen months before famine broke it. Zedekiah was captured at Riblah, saw his sons slain, was blinded and imprisoned in Babylon. The city was plundered and burned, walls broken down, and most Jews deported.
Chapter 43
Why was Nabonidus unpopular, and how did Cyrus take Babylon?
Nabonidus restored temples but carried the gods of Ur, Erech, Larsa, and Eridu into E-sagila, displeasing Merodach's priests. An inscription says Merodach sought a righteous prince and called Cyrus by name. In 539 B.C. Belshazzar was defeated near Opis, Sippar fell, and Gobryas entered Babylon, reportedly through gates opened by friends within; Belshazzar was slain and Nabonidus deported.
Chapter 43
How did Cyrus treat the Jews and Babylon after his conquest?
The author says Cyrus heard the captives' cry with compassion and issued a proclamation permitting the Jews to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Lord's house, fulfilling Jeremiah's word. In 538 B.C. the first party returned; Ezra led another fifty years later, and Nehemiah restored Jerusalem in 445 B.C. Cyrus was welcomed by Babylon's priesthood, took Bel Merodach's hands, and was proclaimed king.
Chapter 43
CHAPTER XX. (part 3)4 cards
What folk belief about calling a dying person's name does the author describe in note 93?
The author reports a belief that relatives must not call out a dying person's name, lest the soul return from the spirit world. He recounts witnessing a mother call her dying child's name; the child revived, and two old women said the child would "never do any good" after being called back. He notes similar beliefs in England, Ireland, and Scotland, where a called-back soul is said to tarry twenty-four hours in great agony.
Chapter 44
How does note 159 explain Merodach's acquisition of a 'cunning plan' after defeating Tiamat?
The note says authorities disagree on the meaning of "Ku-pu"; Jensen suggests "trunk, body." It compares European dragon stories where heroes of the Siegfried order roast and eat the dragon's heart, gaining its wisdom and cunning—Sigurd and Siegfried immediately understand birds, the "Fates," who direct them. Apparently, the note suggests, Merodach's cunning plan was inspired after he ate part of Tiamat's body.
Chapter 44
What does note 207 suggest about Nebuchadnezzar and the god of corn and fertility?
Commenting on Daniel iv, 33, the note suggests it is possible that Nebuchadnezzar, as the human representative of the god of corn and fertility, imitated the god by living for a time in the wilds like Ea-bani. The suggestion is offered tentatively, as a possibility, not as an established fact.
Chapter 44
According to note 113, how are Finn and his followers regarded in Scotland, and what clan claims Diarmid?
The note says that in Scotland Finn and his followers are all giants. It states that Diarmid is the patriarch of the Campbell clan, the MacDiarmids being "sons of Diarmid." It also raises the possibility that Finn and his band were really militiamen—the original Fenians—as is believed in Ireland, and that legends of archaic Iberian deities may have attached to their memories.
Chapter 44
CHAPTER XX. (part 4)4 cards
How do Hindu worshippers count mantras using their fingers?
The upper chambers of the fingers are the "best" or "highest" (uttama) and are used in prayer-counting; the lower (adhama) chambers are not utilized. Sitting cross-legged with closed eyes, the worshipper raises the right hand and moves the thumb at each mantra, while the left hand rests palm upward on the left knee and its thumb moves each time nine mantras have been counted.
Chapter 45
What did Dr. Alfred Jeremias argue about ancient Babylonian astronomy?
The chapter notes that Dr. Alfred Jeremias gives very forcible reasons for believing that the ancient Babylonians were acquainted with the precession of the equinoxes, citing his work Das Alter der Babylonischen Astronomie (Leipzig, 1908). This is presented as Jeremias's argument rather than settled fact.
Chapter 45
How was the god Ra described when he grew old, and what did he become?
A quoted Egyptian text says: "Behold, his majesty the god Ra is grown old; his bones are become silver, his limbs gold, and his hair pure lapis lazuli." The chapter adds that Ra became a destroyer after completing his reign as an earthly king.
Chapter 45
What did the chapter say about Ashur's association with the fir cone?
The fir cone was offered to Attis and Mithra. Its association with Ashur suggests that the great Assyrian deity resembled the gods of corn and trees and fertility. A winged human figure is described carrying a basket in one hand and a fir cone in the other.
Chapter 45
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Text used: Project Gutenberg eBook #16653 (Public domain in the United States). Generated from the full text; cards paraphrase the source.
Version: Public domain edition. Retrieved 2026-10-30. Cards reviewed 2026-10-30.
These cards paraphrase the text for study. They are not a substitute for reading the book, and they do not reproduce long passages.
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